by Stephen Rodgers

Editor’s Note: The BOB series is still ongoing, but currently is taking a bit of a break, with the hope of resuming in early 2013. Until then, please enjoy this Hub Post for the OT books, and stay tuned for some upcoming announcements and improvements to the series itself.

Introduction

The Bible

The OT Canon

The OT Books

The Pentateuch

• Genesis
• Exodus
• Leviticus
• Numbers
• Deuteronomy

History

• Joshua
• Judges
• Ruth
• 1 & 2 Samuel
• 1 & 2 Kings
• 1 & 2 Chronicles
• Ezra
• Nehemiah
• Esther

Wisdom

• Job
• Psalms
• Proverbs
• Ecclesiastes
• Song of Solomon

Major Prophets

• Isaiah
• Jeremiah
• Lamentations
• Ezekiel
• Daniel

Minor Prophets

• Hosea
• Joel
• Amos
• Obadiah
• Jonah
• Micah
• Nahum
• Habakkuk
• Zephaniah
• Haggai
• Zechariah
• Malachi

Outlines

• The Pentateuch
• The Historical Books
• The Wisdom Books
• The Prophetic Books

Other

• Resources, References, and Links

The Apocrypha

The NT Canon

The NT Books

The Gospels

• Matthew
• Mark
• Luke
• John

History

• Acts

The Epistles

• Romans
• 1 Corinthians
• 2 Corinthians
• Galatians
• Ephesians
• Philippians
• Colossians
• 1 Thessalonians
• 2 Thessalonians
• 1 Timothy
• 2 Timothy
• Titus
• Philemon
• Hebrews
• James
• 1 Peter
• 2 Peter
• 1 John
• 2 John
• 3 John
• Jude

Prophecy

• Revelation

Conclusion

by Stephen Rodgers

MALACHI IN 10 WORDS OR LESS

“The Jews are careless in their attitude towards God.”

TITLE

In nearly all the other prophetic books, the name of the book bears the name of the prophet who was responsible for its contents. That certainly could be the case with Malachi, but some have suggested that it might be otherwise despite Mal. 1:1. (See AUTHOR & AUDIENCE).

AUTHOR & AUDIENCE

We know absolutely nothing about Malachi personally, so some scholars have suggested that “Malachi” is not a proper name at all, but rather a literal expression for what it means (“my messenger”). That would make Malachi the only anonymous prophetic book.  The arguments for anonymous authorship typically rely on four points:

• The word “Malachi” is a title rather than a name in it’s form. In fact, that’s how the writers of the Septuigent translated it.
• Neither the Targum nor the Talmud credit Malachi as the author; the Targum credited Ezra and the Talmud credited Mordecai.
• The word “Malachi” appears in Mal. 3:1 and it is definitely a title and not a name in that context.
• Some have suggested that the entire book is merely an oracle such as Zech. 9-11 and Zech. 12-14.

by Stephen Rodgers

ZECHARIAH IN 10 WORDS OR LESS

“Jewish exiles should rebuild their temple – and anticipate their Messiah.”

TITLE

Like nearly all the other prophetic books, the name of the book bears the name of the prophet who was responsible for its contents (Zech. 1:1). The name Zechariah (“the LORD remembers”) is quite common, appearing in conjunction with 29 other OT men.

AUTHOR & AUDIENCE

Like Haggai and Malachi, Zechariah is one of the post-exilic prophets. In fact, he is mentioned several times in conjunction with Haggai, causing many scholars to theorize that the two were friends who returned from the Babylonian exile together as children, but didn’t come of age until later when they both began to preach and prophesy in 520 BC.

Per the MSB:

Like Jeremiah and Ezekiel, Zechariah was also a priest (Neh. 12:12–16) According to tradition, he was a member of the Great Synagogue, a council of 120 originated by Nehemiah and presided over by Ezra. This council later developed into the ruling elders of the nation, called the Sanhedrin. He was born in Babylon and joined his grandfather, Iddo, in the group of exiles who first returned to Jerusalem under the leadership of Zerubbabel and Joshua the High-Priest (cf. Neh. 12:4). Because he is occasionally mentioned as the son of his grandfather (cf. Ezra 5:1; 6:14; Neh. 12:16), it is thought that his father, Berechiah, died at an early age before he could succeed his father into the priesthood…According to Matt. 23:35, he was murdered between the temple and the altar, a fate similar to an earlier Zechariah (cf. 2 Chr. 24:20,21), who had been stoned to death.

There is some dispute as to which Zechariah Jesus was referring to. Per Constable:

The Lord Jesus referred to a Zechariah, the son of Berechiah, whom the Jews murdered between the temple and the altar (Matt. 23:35). This appears to be how the prophet’s life ended.[Gleason L. Archer Jr., A Survey of Old Testament Introduction, p. 425.] This would make Zechariah one of the last righteous people the Jews slew in Old Testament history.

Some students of Scripture believe that the Zechariah to whom Jesus referred was the son of Jehoiada whom the Jews stoned in the temple courtyard (2 Chron. 24:20-22).[E.g., Eugene H. Merrill, An Exegetical Commentary: Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi, p. 95.] However, that man died hundreds of years earlier, before 800 B.C., and Jesus seems to have been summarizing all the righteous people the Jews had slain throughout Old Testament history chronologically. Zechariah ben Jehoiada was the last martyr in the last book of the Hebrew Bible, Chronicles, so Jesus may have been speaking canonically, the equivalent of “all the martyrs from Genesis to Revelation.” Nevertheless that Zechariah was the son of Jehoiada, not Berechiah, and Jesus mentioned Berechiah as the father of the Zechariah He meant. “Son” sometimes means “ancestor,” but there is no known Berechiah in the family line of the Zechariah of 2 Chronicles.

The original audience consisted of the Jews who had returned from the Babylonian exile (see notes on Haggai).

DATE

Zechariah dates the prophesies contained in chapters 1-8 (Zech. 1.1, 7; 7:1) to 520 and 518 BC. The prophecies in chapters 9-14 are undated, but there is reason to believe that he prophesied (and wrote) those chapters much later in his life.

Per the MSB:

Zechariah’s opening words are dated from 520 B.C., the second year of Darius I (Zech. 1:1). The Persian emperor Cyrus had died and was succeeded by Cambyses (ca. 530–521 B.C.) who conquered Egypt. He had no son, he killed himself, and Darius rose to the throne by quelling a revolution. He was a contemporary of Haggai, and began his prophesying 2 months after him (cf. Haggai Introduction). He is called a young man in 2:4, suggesting that Zechariah was younger than Haggai. The length of his ministry is uncertain; the last dated prophecy (Zech. 7:1) came approximately two years after the first, making them identical in time with Haggai’s prophecy (520–518 B.C.). Chapters 9–14 are generally thought to come from a later period of his ministry. Differences in style and references to Greece indicate a date of ca. 480–470 B.C., after Darius I (ca. 521–486 B.C.) and during Xerxes’ reign (ca. 486–464 B.C.), the king who made Esther queen of Persia. 

BACKGROUND & SETTING

Zechariah was contemporary of Haggai, so he spoke to the post-exilic community as they struggled to rebuild Jerusalem, the nation, and the temple.  Like Haggai he exhorted them to focus on the temple, but unlike Haggai, he took a bit of a broader view, focusing on the future restoration of the nation to a greater degree than the future judgment (which makes it a bit of a departure from type, since it doesn’t particularly embody the classical “covenant lawsuit” pattern).

HISTORICAL & THEOLOGICAL THEMES

There are two main themes that pervade the book of Zechariah.

• Israel’s Near Future. The first eight chapters of Zechariah read somewhat like a lighter version of Haggai.  Zechariah encouraged the returnees to rebuild the temple, repent of their sins (Zech. 1:2-6) and mirror God’s character in their treatment of the poor and vulnerable (Zech. 7:4-14). His night visions also expressed God’s care and continuing concern for his covenant people.
• Israel’s Distant Future. The last six chapters of Zechariah read more like a less-obscure version of Isaiah, as they speak to how God would destroy Israel’s enemies (Zech. 9:1-8), establish their ultimate King (Zech. 9:9-17), gather His scattered people (Zech. 10:1-11:3), and rule over all creation (Zech. 14:1-21).

INTERPRETIVE CHALLENGES

Considering that Zechariah contains elements that are prophetic, apocalyptic, and eschatalogical, it would be surprising if there weren’t any interpretive issues. They tend to be relatively minor however, such as the identity of the “three shepherds” or the “wounded man.” While interesting, none of that touches on the core of Zechariah’s message to the people of Israel regarding their future kingdom and messiah.

LITERARY FEATURES

Per the ESVSB:

The main genre of Zechariah is futuristic prophecy. Although the second half of the book contains some conventional oracles of judgment and oracles of redemption, in the first half the preferred medium is visions that embody in symbolic form what God plans to do. This part of the book needs to be approached much like the NT book of Revelation—by first allowing the images and symbols to activate the imagination, and then by exploring what those details symbolize. Visions and oracles of salvation predominate over images of judgment. Chapters 1–6 of Zechariah, with their striking otherworldly visions in the company of an angelic interpreter, form an important precursor to later apocalyptic literature.

OBJECTIONS

The most significant objection that has been repeatedly raised in the last ~200 years is the issue of alleged multiple authorship. As mentioned earlier, some scholars have posited a difference in authorship based on stylistic differences between chapters 1-8 and 9-14.  What is particularly interesting about the history of that dispute is that it did NOT arise as part of the higher criticism movement (on the contrary, the textual transmission evidence argues  against any split between chapters 8 and 9), but rather as a response to inter-textual issues.  Per Constable:

Until A.D. 1653 no one seriously questioned that Zechariah wrote the whole book. In that year Joseph Mede suggested that Jeremiah may have written chapters 9—11, in view of Matthew 27:9. In succeeding years other scholars proceeded to question the second part of the book (chs. 9—14) because of its differences in content and historical and chronological references compared to the first part. Today almost all critical scholars regard this book as the product of two or three writers who wrote either before the exile or after Zechariah…Competent conservative scholars have refuted the arguments of the radical critics adequately. [See especially Baldwin, pp. 62-70; Leupold, pp. 6-13; Merrill F. Unger, Unger’s Bible Commentary: Zechariah, pp. 13-14; R. K. Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, pp. 950-56; and Archer, pp. 425-30.]

Most arguments for multiple scholarship in recent years have tended to rely on anti-prophetic bias since the textual and historical evidence has shifted back towards supporting a single-author hypothesis (which has also always been the universal tradition of both Jews and Christians).

NOTABLE QUOTABLES

• Zechariah 1:3
• Zechariah 4:6

DID YOU KNOW?

• Other than Isaiah (and possibly the Psalms), Zechariah is probably the prophet with the greatest amount of messianic teaching.
• Babylonia is referred to “the land of the north” even though it was actually east of Israel.  However, since Israel was protected from invasion from the east by a rather sizable desert, invading armies regularly attacked from the north (Zech. 2:6)
• A “waterless pit” (empty cistern) was sometimes used as an impromtu detention cell (Zech. 9:11).
• Inexplicable wounds on a person’s body were often associated with self-inflicted injuries in cultic practices (Zech. 13:6).

Other Works Referenced

• Apologetics Study Bible, “Zechariah”
• Archaeological Study Bible, “Introduction to Zechariah”
• ESV Study Bible, “Introduction to Zechariah”
• MacArthur Study Bible, “Zechariah”
• NET Bible, Zechariah
• NIV Study Bible, Zechariah
• Reformation Study Bible, “Zechariah”
• The Baker Illustrated Bible Handbook, “Zechariah”
• Dever, The Message of the Old Testament
• Driscoll, A Book You’ll Actually Read On the Old Testament
• Knight, The Layman’s Bible Handbook

by Stephen Rodgers

HAGGAI IN 10 WORDS OR LESS

“Jews returning from exile need to rebuild God’s temple.”

TITLE

Like nearly all the other prophetic books, the name of the book bears the name of the prophet who was responsible for its contents (Hag. 1:1).

Per the MSB:

Because his name means “festal one,” it is suggested that Haggai was born on a feast day. Haggai is the second shortest book in the OT (Obadiah is shorter) and is quoted by the NT once (cf. Heb. 12:26).

AUTHOR & AUDIENCE

Apart from his name and title, we know nothing of Haggai, and his lineage and tribal origin remain a mystery. He is however mentioned twice by Ezra (Ezra 5:1; 6:14), both time in connection with Zechariah (another post-exilic prophet). No other person in the OT has his name, although some of the other names are similar (Gen. 46:16; Num. 26:15; 2 Sam. 3:4; 1 Chr. 6:30).

Constable notes one erroneous claim regarding Haggai:

Some editions of the Greek Septuagint and the Latin Vulgate versions of the Book of Psalms attribute authorship of some of the Psalms to Haggai and or Zechariah (i.e., Ps. 111—112, 125—126, 137—138, and 145—149). There is no other evidence that either prophet wrote any of these psalms. The reason for the connection appears to have been the close association that these prophets had with the temple where these psalms were sung.

The original audience would have been the Jews who returned to Jerusalem in 537 BC, but had neglected to restore the temple in that time.

DATE

Haggai is actually the most precisely-dated of all the prophetic books, recounting prophecy that he received between August 29 and December 18, 520 BC. However, that does not mean that Haggai then wrote the book during that same time.  Constable theorizes that he wrote the book after receiving the prophecy (which, to put it mildly, makes sense) but before the temple was completed in 516/515 BC:

Probably Haggai wrote the book between 520 and 515 B.C., the year the returnees completed the temple. Lack of reference to the completion of the temple, while not a strong argument for this view, seems reasonable since mention of the completion of the temple would have finished off the book nicely.

BACKGROUND & SETTING

Haggai is one of the post-exilic prophets (the others being Zechariah and Malachi) who wrote after the remnant had returned from exile in Babylon (you might want to review Ezra and Nehemiah if this doesn’t ring a bell). They arrived in 538 BC, and began to rebuild the temple in 536 BC under the leadership of Zerubbabel and Joshua the high priest (Ezra 3:2). However, opposition from their neighbors and indifference from the Jews themselves caused the work to be abandoned until 520 BC.

Enter Haggai, who comes on the scene and instructs the people to 1) finish rebuilding the temple, and 2) get their priorities straight. He pointed out that as the people of God, they should be more concerned with His glory and desires than with their own, a message we would do well to heed in our own day.

HISTORICAL & THEOLOGICAL THEMES

There are two main themes that pervade the book of Haggai:

• Priorities. The people had neglected the rebuilding of God’s temple while focusing on constructing beautiful homes for themselves (Hag. 1:2-4, 9). Haggai instructed them that God’s temple and work were to be their top priority.
• Obedience. There are consequences for disobeying God (Hag. 1:6, 11; 2:16-17). But when God’s people follow Him (1:12), He graciously  provides the enthusiasm (Hag. 1:4), strength (Hag. 2:4-5), and resources (Hag. 2:8) to do His will.

INTERPRETIVE CHALLENGES

There are no significant interpretive issues with Haggai that I am aware of.

LITERARY FEATURES

Per the ESVSB:

Although the book of Haggai falls within the general category of prophecy, it is not a typical prophetic book. It is written in prose instead of the customary poetry. Although there are predictions of promised blessing, there are no oracles of judgment in the usual sense. Instead, God simply calls the nation’s attention to its low ebb, as though judgment had already occurred. There are also intermittent golden-age visions, as well as a narrative episode (Hag. 1:12–15). By means of a specific instance (the rebuilding of the temple), the book of Haggai is a relevant and timeless book on the need to put God’s work first in one’s life. For the prophet’s society, rebuilding the temple would be the visible sign of the people’s determination to put God first.

OBJECTIONS

There are no significant objections to Haggai that I am aware of.

NOTABLE QUOTABLES

• Haggai 1:4
• Haggai 2:4

DID YOU KNOW?

• A garmet that came into contact with consecrated meat (meat set apart for sacrifice) became “holy” (Lev. 6:27), but could not pass that “holiness” on to a third object. Ceremonial uncleanliness was transmitted much more easily that cleanliness, since anything touched by an unclean person became unclean (Hag. 2:12-13).
• A signet was a kind of seal or stamp which functioned as a signature. It could be used as a pledge or guarantee of full payment of a debt (Hag. 2:23).

Other Works Referenced

• Apologetics Study Bible, “Haggai”
• Archaeological Study Bible, “Introduction to Haggai”
• ESV Study Bible, “Introduction to Haggai”
• MacArthur Study Bible, “Haggai”
• NET Bible, Haggai
• NIV Study Bible, Haggai
• Reformation Study Bible, “Haggai”
• The Baker Illustrated Bible Handbook, “Haggai”
• Dever, The Message of the Old Testament
• Driscoll, A Book You’ll Actually Read On the Old Testament
• Knight, The Layman’s Bible Handbook

by Stephen Rodgers

ZEPHANIAH IN 10 WORDS OR LESS

“A coming “day of the LORD” promises heavy judgment.”

TITLE

Like nearly all the other prophetic books, the name of the book bears the name of the prophet who was responsible for its contents (Zeph. 1:1).

AUTHOR & AUDIENCE

Beyond what we know from Zephaniah 1:1, there is very little we know about the prophet.  However, that one verse gives us quite a bit of material.

• Zephaniah lists his genealogy going back four generations, which seems a bit unusual and overkill.  However, that fourth generation seems to be a doozy, in that it is quite likely that it refers to King Hezekiah of Judah (the only other two “Hezekiahs” in the OT both being post-exilic).
• Considering that the same verse tells us that the prophecy was delivered during the reign of King Josiah, it seems like Zephaniah is setting up a parallel between that of his descendant and the current monarch…which makes sense considering both were spiritual reformers.
• Interestingly, this would also make Zephaniah the only prophet (other than David and Solomon) who was also royalty.

DATE

Given that Josiah reigned from 640 BC to 609 BC, we can confidently place Zephaniah’s prophecy into that window.  However, we might be able to narrow it down even further:

• As previously mentioned Nineveh was destroyed in 612 BC. Since Zephaniah prophesied regarding its destruction and the fall of the Assyrians, that narrows the window to 640 BC to 612 BC.
• This is where things get tricky. The single most momentous event of Josiah’s reign was the discovery of the Book of the Law (2 Kings 22:8). Commentators are divided as to whether the evidence that Zephaniah prophesied before or after this event.

Per Constable:

Zephaniah ministered during the reign of King Josiah of Judah (640-609 B.C.; 1:1). Scholars debate just when during his reign Zephaniah wrote, before[E.g., ibid., p. 276; H. A. Hanke, “Zephaniah,” in The Wycliffe Bible Commentary, p. 883; David W. Baker, Nahum, Habakkuk and Zephaniah, p. 91; Leon J. Wood, The Prophets of Israel, p. 320; Bruce K. Waltke, An Old Testament Theology, p. 839; et al.] or after[E.g., John D. Hannah, “Zephaniah,” in The Bible Knowledge Commentary: Old Testament, p. 1523; et al.] Josiah’s reforms, which began in 622 B.C. There is support for both views.[See Patterson, pp. 275-6, for other scholars who held each of these views.] Zephaniah made no explicit reference to Josiah’s reforms, and the evidence is really insufficient to settle the debate.

BACKGROUND & SETTING

Zephaniah is a bright light in a sea of darkness. The reforms of Josiah parallel those of Hezekiah, but they are too little and too late. Even though Josiah worked to undo the pagan influences in Judah, the progress he made would be undone by his own son within years of his death. Zephaniah saw this all in grand perspective…how a reformation that would prove futile in the short term would nonetheless ultimately culminate in the Day of the LORD and the restoration of his people.

HISTORICAL & THEOLOGICAL THEMES

There are two main themes that pervade the book of Zephaniah:

• Judgment. The main theme of the book is the coming “Day of the LORD” (Zeph. 1:7, 14), a day of universal judgment (Zeph. 1:2-3) as well as specific judgment against Judah (Zeph. 1:4-6) as well as other nations (Zeph. 2:4-15). Religious syncretism-a mixing of true worship and idolatry (Zeph. 1:4-6)-brings destruction (Zeph. 1:9-13), but seeking God in humility results in salvation (Zeph. 2:1-3).
• Restoration. Zephaniah assured his audience that judgment would be followed by restoration. God would purify His own (Zeph. 3:9), bring rejoicing (Zeph. 3:14-17), and restore his people’s glory (Zeph. 3:18-20).

INTERPRETIVE CHALLENGES

There are no major interpretive challenges listed in the vast majority of sources I consulted, although the MSB does highlight a rather unique issue:

Some have referred the phrase “I will restore to the peoples a pure language” (Zeph. 3:9) to the restoration of a universal language, similar to the days prior to confusion of languages at the Tower of Babel (Gen. 11:1–9). They point out that the word “language” is also used in Gen. 11:7. It is better, however, to understand the passage as pointing to a purification of heart and life. This is confirmed by the context (cf. Zeph. 3:13) and corroborated by the fact that the word “language” is most commonly translated “lip.” When combined with “pure,” the reference to speech speaks of inward cleansing from sin (Is. 6:5) manifested in speech (cf. Matt. 12:34), including the removal of the names of false gods from their lips (Hos. 2:17). It does not imply a one world language.

So there’s that.

LITERARY FEATURES

Per the ESVSB:

The book of Zephaniah is a typical work of prophecy, but with distinctive features woven into the tapestry. The primary genre within this prophetic book is the oracle of judgment, with an oracle of salvation coming at the expected place, namely, at the end. Zephaniah, almost uniquely among the so-called “minor prophets,” looks like a “major prophet” in miniature: it has oracles of judgment (Zeph. 1:1–18), oracles against foreign nations (Zeph. 2:4–15), and oracles of hope (Zeph. 3:8–20), with Zeph. 2:1–3 and Zeph. 3:1–7 (modulating from foreign to domestic interest, much as Amos does in Amos 2:4ff.) functioning as “transitional” oracles which make pointed application to Jerusalem.

OBJECTIONS

There are no significant objections to Zephaniah that I am aware of, aside from the stock objection that prophecy is impossible, and therefore “true” prophecies of future events (such as the fall of Nineveh), must either inform the dating of the book or the redaction of the text.

NOTABLE QUOTABLES

• Zephaniah 1:14
• Zephaniah 3:17

DID YOU KNOW?

• Zephaniah refers to himself as the son of “Cushi” (“the Cushite”), which is interesting, considering that the Cushites and the Israelites were rather ethnically and geographically removed from one another. While his father very well may have been a Cushite, other explanations are that he looked like a Cushite, or that his name was intended to honor Cush (which was occasionally a military ally of Israel).

Other Works Referenced

• Apologetics Study Bible, “Zephaniah”
• Archaeological Study Bible, “Introduction to Zephaniah”
• ESV Study Bible, “Introduction to Zephaniah”
• MacArthur Study Bible, “Zephaniah”
• NET Bible, Zephaniah
• NIV Study Bible, Zephaniah
• Reformation Study Bible, “Zephaniah”
• The Baker Illustrated Bible Handbook, “Zephaniah”
• Dever, The Message of the Old Testament
• Driscoll, A Book You’ll Actually Read On the Old Testament
• Knight, The Layman’s Bible Handbook

by Stephen Rodgers

HABAKKUK IN 10 WORDS OR LESS

“Trust God even when He seems unresponsive or unfair.”

TITLE

Like the majority of the other prophetic books, Habakkuk is named for the prophet who gave the prophecy that bears his name (Habakkuk 1:1).

Per the MSB:

This prophetic book takes its name from its author and possibly means “one who embraces” (Hab. 1:1; 3:1). By the end of the prophecy, this name becomes appropriate as the prophet clings to God regardless of his confusion about God’s plans for his people.

AUTHOR & AUDIENCE

Beyond his name, we basically know nothing about Habakkuk. The fact that he is called “Habakkuk the Prophet” seems to suggest that he was relatively well-known, and needed no further identification. There is even disagreement as to whether the origin of his name itself is either Hebrew or Babylonian.

Since so little is actually known about Habakkuk, legends and stories abound in an attempt to fill the gap. Here are some of them so that you don’t get your facts mixed up with your fiction…

Per Constable:

The New Testament writers told us nothing about the prophet. There are traditions about who Habakkuk was that have little basis in fact but are interesting nonetheless. Since the last verse of the book gives a musical notation similar to some psalms, some students concluded that he was a musician and possibly a Levite. The Septuagint addition to the Book of Daniel, the apocryphal Bel and the Dragon, mentions Habakkuk in its title as the son of Jeshua of the tribe of Levi. It records a legend about him that is pure fantasy. Supposedly an angel commanded Habakkuk to take a meal to Daniel, who was in the lions’ den a second time. When the prophet complained that he did not know where the den was, the angel picked him up by a lock of his hair and carried him to the spot (Bel vv. 33-39). According to rabbinic sources, Habakkuk was the son of the Shunammite woman whom Elisha restored to life (2 Kings 4). The basis for this theory is that Elisha’ servant told the woman that she would “embrace” a son (2 Kings 4:16), and Habakkuk’s name is similar to the Hebrew word for “embrace.”

Despite everything we don’t know, the one thing we do know is that the book was originally intended for the people of Judah.

DATE

Given the date of composition, we do know that Habakkuk was a contemporary of Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Daniel, and Zephaniah.

Per the MSB:

The mention of the Chaldeans (Hab. 1:6) suggests a late seventh century B.C. date, shortly before Nebuchadnezzar commenced his military march through Nineveh (612 B.C.), Haran (609 B.C.), and Carchemish (605 B.C.), on his way to Jerusalem (605 B.C.). Habakkuk’s bitter lament (Hab. 1:2–4) may reflect a time period shortly after the death of Josiah (609 B.C.), days in which the godly king’s reforms (cf. 2 Kin. 23) were quickly overturned by his successor, Jehoiakim (Jer. 22:13–19).

Most traditional scholars therefore date the book somewhere between 609 BC and 605 BC, but it’s impossible to be very precise or dogmatic on this particular point.

BACKGROUND & SETTING

Habakkuk wrote at a time where corruption was on a distinct upswing in Judah. Seeing the rampant sin around him, he questioned God, asking Him what He would do. God’s response was that he was sending the Chaldeans (Babylonians) as His judgment on Judah. Habakkuk protested that this particular judgment was unjust, since he believed that the Chaldeans were even more wicked than the Judeans, and therefore God’s use of them was somehow unjustified. God’s response was that He would always punish evil, and that Habakkuk needed to wait and trust in Him (putting him in a similar position to Job).

HISTORICAL & THEOLOGICAL THEMES

There are two major themes in Habakkuk:

• Justice. Habakkuk affirms that God is holy and just (Hab. 1:12-13; 3:3), and will always punish the wicked (Hab. 1:5-11; 2:2-20) at the “appointed time” (Hab. 2:3). While the righteous may have to wait for vindication (or the evil for their punishment), it will always come.
• Faith. Faith is needed to endure injustice (Hab. 2:4). Even when life seems confusing, God’s people are to wait and trust that He will eventually make things right (Hab. 2:3). The righteous “live by faith,” (Hab. 2:4), not by the way that things appear on the surface (Hab. 1:4).

INTERPRETIVE CHALLENGES

There are no significant interpretive challenges to Habakkuk that I’m aware of.

LITERARY FEATURES

Per the ESVSB:

The first two chapters fall into the dramatic format of dialogue; more specifically, they are question-and-answer exchanges between the prophet and God. The prophet’s vision of God’s appearance (Hab. 3:3–15) is a theophany, and it is followed by a personal testimony (Hab. 3:17–19). Overall, the first-person format of the dialogue, the visionary theophany, and the testimony make the book read like a personal journal.

OBJECTIONS

In some circles it is popular to advance the claim that Habakkuk 1-2 and Habakkuk 3 have different authors.

Per Constable:

The major challenge to the unity of the book has come from liberal scholars who view psalmic material such as chapter 3 as postexilic. The commentary on Habakkuk found at Qumran does not expound this psalm either. However, the continuity of theme that continues through the whole book plus the absence of any compelling reasons to reject chapter 3 argue for the book’s unity. (O. Palmer Robertson, The Books of Nahum, Habakkuk, and Zephaniah, pp. 212-14.)

It should also be noted that while the Habakkuk Pesher only contains chapters 1-2,  both the Scroll of the Minor Prophets from Wadi Murabbaat and the Greek Scroll of the Minor Prophets from Nahal Hever both contain chapters 1-3.

NOTABLE QUOTABLES

• Habakkuk 2:4 (famously quoted by Paul in Romans)
• Habakkuk 3:18

DID YOU KNOW?

• Habakkuk records at least one potential answer to the so-called Problem of Evil: God sometimes uses one form of evil as a judgment on another form of evil…while declaring that ultimately all evil will be punished.

Other Works Referenced

• Apologetics Study Bible, “Habakkuk”
• Archaeological Study Bible, “Introduction to Habakkuk”
• ESV Study Bible, “Introduction to Habakkuk”
• MacArthur Study Bible, “Habakkuk”
• NET Bible, Habakkuk
• NIV Study Bible, Habakkuk
• Reformation Study Bible, “Habakkuk”
• The Baker Illustrated Bible Handbook, “Habakkuk”
• Dever, The Message of the Old Testament
• Driscoll, A Book You’ll Actually Read On the Old Testament
• Knight, The Layman’s Bible Handbook

by Stephen Rodgers

NAHUM IN 10 WORDS OR LESS

“Powerful, wicked Nineveh will fall before God’s judgment.”

TITLE

Like the majority of the other prophetic books, Nahum is named for the prophet who gave the prophecy that bears his name (Nahum 1:1).

AUTHOR & AUDIENCE

Per Constable:

We know nothing about Nahum (“compassion,” “consolation,” or “comfort”) other than what we read in this book. His name proved significant since he brought comfort and consolation to the Judeans with his prophecies. He was “the Elkoshite” (Nahum 1:1), so he evidently came from a town named Elkosh, but the location of such a town has yet to be discovered. Scholars have suggested that it stood near Nineveh, in Galilee, near Capernaum (City of Nahum?), east of the Jordan River, or somewhere in Judah. Since he was a Jewish prophet and evidently lived after the fall of Samaria in 722 B.C., a location in Judah seems most likely to me.

Nahum’s prophecy was delivered both to the Assyrians who had captured and carried off the ten northern tribes, but also to the southern kingdom of Judah who feared that the same thing might happen to them.

DATE

Nahum can actually be dated fairly easily, since it clearly takes place between two well-known historical events: the fall of Thebes and the fall of Nineveh.

Per the MSB:

With no mention of any kings in the introduction, the date of Nahum’s prophecy must be implied by historical data. The message of judgment against Nineveh portrays a nation of strength, intimating a time not only prior to her fall in 612 B.C. but probably before the death of Ashurbanipal in 626 B.C., after which Assyria’s power fell rapidly. Nahum’s mention of the fall of No Amon, also called Thebes (Nahum 3:8–10), in 663 B.C. (at the hands of Ashurbanipal) appears to be fresh in their minds and there is no mention of the rekindling that occurred ten years later, suggesting a mid-seventh century B.C. date during the reign of Manasseh (ca. 695–642 B.C.; cf. 2 Kin. 21:1–18).

BACKGROUND & SETTING

It helps to think of Nahum as the sequel to Jonah. Over 100 years before, God had used Jonah (worst. prophet. ever.) to proclaim to the Ninevites a message of judgment. In response, the Ninivites repented in rather spectacular fashion (remember the remorseful livestock). However, that spirit of repentance was apparently short lived, since in the intervening years they had managed not only to return to their evil ways, but had been used themselves as an instrument of judgment in the destruction of the northern kingdom of Israel…who themselves had not learned the necessary lessons from Jonah’s message.

Fast forward to Nahum, and his prophecy concerning Nineveh. Despite the apparently overwhelming odds, he promised that the Assyrians would be judged for their wicked and cruel ways, and that God would ultimately deliver His people.

HISTORICAL & THEOLOGICAL THEMES

There are two major themes that run through the book of Nahum.

• Judgment. Nahum portrays God as a divine warrior, and made it clear that it was He who would destroy Nineveh (Nahum 1:2-3, 8, 14-15). Among the chief sins of the Assyrians, he singled out violence (Nahum 2:12; 3:1, 4), idolatry (Nahum 2:14), and cruelty (Nahum 3:19) for particular mention.
• Deliverance. Nahum brought a message of hope to Judah, who had suffered under the Assyrians for many years. He told how God cares for His people, and will avenge them against those who abuse them. Ultimately, He alone will truly protect them (Nahum 1:7), free them from oppression (Nahum 1:13, 15), and restore them (Nahum 2:2).

INTERPRETIVE CHALLENGES

There are no significant interpretive challenges regarding Nahum.

LITERARY FEATURES

Per the ESVSB:

The prophetic book of Nahum consists entirely of oracles of judgment, with no oracles of redemption or blessing, though a future restoration of Judah is indicated in passing. The second half of the book includes taunts, pronouncements of woe (sometimes called “the woe formula”), and vivid narratives of destruction. In a sense, the whole book is an extended taunt. Since the imagery and motifs are consistently military in reference (with God pictured as a divine warrior), the book can be considered war poetry.

OBJECTIONS

No major objections are raised against Nahum, although unbelievers try to find alternative explanations to Nahum 1:8 and 3:11, which are a little too accurate for comfort for the unbelieving mind. Nahum 1:8 most likely refers to the overflowing of the Tigris river, which actually was a pivotal moment in allowing Nineveh to be conquered by the Babylonians/Medes/Scythians. Nahum 3:11 most likely refers to the fact that after its destruction in 612 BC, this massive city, at one time considered to be one of the largest in the ANE, was buried under the desert sand and remained hidden until 1842 AD…nearly 2,500 years later.

NOTABLE QUOTABLES

• Nahum 1:3
• Nahum 1:7

DID YOU KNOW?

• Nahum is basically the sequel to Jonah.
• Nahum is not quoted in the NT, although there may be an allusion to Nah. 1:15 in Rom. 10:15 (cf. Is. 52:7).
• The Assyrians were known for their cruelty in warfare, often engaging in behavior such as making pyramids of severed heads, stacking bodies like cordword (Nahum 3:3), and murdering infants (Nahum 3:10).

Other Works Referenced

• Apologetics Study Bible, “Nahum”
• Archaeological Study Bible, “Introduction to Nahum”
• ESV Study Bible, “Introduction to Nahum”
• MacArthur Study Bible, “Nahum”
• NET Bible, Nahum
• NIV Study Bible, Nahum
• Reformation Study Bible, “Nahum”
• The Baker Illustrated Bible Handbook, “Nahum”
• Dever, The Message of the Old Testament
• Driscoll, A Book You’ll Actually Read On the Old Testament
• Knight, The Layman’s Bible Handbook

by Stephen Rodgers

MICAH IN 10 WORDS OR LESS

“Israel and Judah will suffer for their idolatry and injustice.”

TITLE

Like the majority of the other prophetic books, Micah is named for the prophet who gave the prophecy that bears his name.

Per the MSB:

The name of the book is derived from the prophet who, having received the word of the Lord, was commissioned to proclaim it. Micah, whose name is shared by others in the OT (e.g., Judg. 17:1; 2 Chr. 13:2; Jer. 36:11), is a shortened form of Micaiah (or Michaiah) and means “Who is like the LORD?” In Micah 7:18, Micah uses a play on his own name, saying “Who is a God like You?”

AUTHOR & AUDIENCE

It is somewhat interesting to note that Micah is identified by his location (Micah 1:1, 1:4) rather than his  lineage (Joel 1:1; Jonah 1:1). Both the MSB and the NET overlap in their introduction of him, but each provide a bit of extra information.

Per the MSB:

The first verse establishes Micah as the author. Beyond that, little is known about him. His parentage is not given, but his name suggests a godly heritage. He traces his roots to the town of Moresheth (Mic. 1:1,14), located in the foothills of Judah, approximately 25 mi. SW of Jerusalem, on the border of Judah and Philistia, near Gath. From a productive agricultural area, he was like Amos, a country resident removed from the national politics and religion, yet chosen by God (Mic. 3:8) to deliver a message of judgment to the princes and people of Jerusalem. 

Per Constable:

The name “Micah” is a shortened form of “Micaiah,” which means, “Who is like Yahweh?” A different Micaiah, the son of Imlah, served as a prophet in the Northern Kingdom during the reign of King Ahab of Israel (874-853 B.C., 1 Kings 22:8-28; 2 Chron. 18:3-27). Micah’s hometown was Moresheth-gath, which stood about 25 miles southwest of Jerusalem in Judah (Mic. 1:1). It was called Moresheth-gath (Mic. 1:14) because it was fairly close to the Philistine town of Gath. Moresheth-gath was also about six miles northeast of Lachish, an important Judean town in Micah’s day because it stood on an international trade route. Since Moresheth-gath stood only about a day’s walk west of Tekoa, Amos’ hometown, these prophets, who were roughly contemporary, may have known each other. Amos prophesied during the reign of King Uzziah of Judah (Amos 1:1), and Micah prophesied during the reigns of Kings Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah of Judah, who followed Uzziah (Mic. 1:1).

DATE

Micah clearly falls into the sub-category of the pre-exilic prophets, albeit as a somewhat unusual one since he prophesied to and against both Israel and Judah.

Per the MSB:

Micah places his prophecy during the reigns of Jotham (750–731 B.C.), Ahaz (731–715 B.C.), and Hezekiah (715–686 B.C.). His indictments of social injustices and religious corruption renew the theme of Amos (mid-eighth century B.C.) and his contemporaries, Hosea in the N (ca. 755–710 B.C.) and in the S Isaiah (ca. 739–690 B.C.). This fits that which is known about the character of Ahaz (2 Kin. 16:10–18) and his son Hezekiah prior to his sweeping spiritual reformations (2 Chr. 29; 31:1). His references to the imminent fall of Samaria (Mic. 1:6) clearly position him before 722 B.C., at approximately 735–710 B.C.

BACKGROUND & SETTING

In many ways, the closest match to Micah (both personally and thematically) is Amos. Like Amos, Micah was a rural prophet sent to an urban center to bring a message of God’s impending judgment as a result of social and spiritual injustice and idolatry. Some have theorized that they might even have known each other (Leon Wood, The Prophets of Israel).

Per Constable:

Micah ministered to the people of Judah, the Southern Kingdom. He predicted the destruction of the Northern Kingdom of Israel by the Assyrians and warned the Judeans that God would discipline them too for their sins. As in all the prophetical books, the standard by which God measured His people was the Mosaic Covenant. If they obeyed, they would enjoy blessing, but if they disobeyed, they could expect punishment (cf. Lev. 26; Deut. 28). Micah, too, pointed out how the Israelites had broken the covenant and that judgment was inevitable, but he also promised ultimate restoration in view of God’s promises to the patriarchs. Micah never used the word “covenant” (Heb. berit), but it is clear from what he wrote that thoughts of the covenant were always in his mind.

In a similar fashion, Micah is never explicitly addressed as a “prophet,” but the source of his power is explicitly attributed to the “Spirit of the Lord” (Mic. 3:8; cf. 2 Pet. 1:20–21).

HISTORICAL & THEOLOGICAL THEMES

There are three major themes that run through the book of Micah:

• Judgment Against Oppressors. Micah focused his anger on both idolatry and social evil, but the most extensive and harsh comments were reserved for those who used their power to oppress those weaker than themselves. Those in power had conspired to do evil (Micah 2:1; 7:3), coveted and defrauded (Micah 2:2; 6:10), stolen and plundered (Micah 2:8), hated good and loved evil (Micah 3:2), oppressed the poor (Micah 3:3), despised justice and distorted truth (Micah 3:9), accepted bribes (Micah 3:11; 7:3), used their religious positions for profit (Micah 3:11), engaged in dishonest business practices (Micah 6:11), acted with violence and deceit (Micah 6:12), and murdered their own people (Micah 7:2). As punishment for this, Micah prophesied that God would bring judgment upon both Samaria (Micah 1:6-7) and Jerusalem (Micah 1:12; 3:12; 4:10).
• Restoration. Micah declared that after judgment God would mercifully forgive and restore His people (Micah 7:9), bring them back from Babylon (Micah 4:10), and restoring Jerusalem’s dominion (Micah 4:8,13).
• Justice. Micah asks a seemingly simple question, “What does the LORD require of you?” The answer in Micah 6:8 (made famous by a Christian praise song in the 80’s), is not used simply a cute chorus of noble activities. It was explicitly a lack of these qualities for which Israel was condemned.

INTERPRETIVE CHALLENGES

There is a minor interpretive issue related to Micah 4:2-3 and Isaiah 2:2-4.  The question is typically framed as follows:

• Did Micah quote Isaiah, or
• Did Isaiah quote Micah, or
• Did both Micah and Isaiah quote some third source?

LITERARY FEATURES

Per the ESVSB:

Micah comprises a series of oracles (prophetic pronouncements) delivered in a variety of historical and political contexts. The overall genre is prophecy. While Micah uses a variety of forms such as disputation (Micah 2:6–11) and lament (1:8–16), the two leading prophetic forms in Micah are the oracle of judgment (Micah 2:1–4) and the oracle of salvation or redemption (Micah 5:2–5). The oracles of judgment follow the rules of satire: they have one or more objects of attack, a vehicle in which the attack is embodied, a stated or implied norm by which the criticism is conducted, and a prevailing tone that is either biting or laughing. Some of the oracles of salvation picture a future golden age (which can be taken either as messianic visions of the first coming of Christ or as apocalyptic visions of Christ’s second coming). Much of the book’s content is embodied in poetical language, requiring the reader to unpack the meanings of images and figures of speech such as wordplay (see note on Micah 1:10–15), metaphor, and simile (Micah 1:4, 8; 2:12; 3:3, 12; 4:9–10; 5:8; 7:1, 4).

OBJECTIONS

Some have objected that the prophetic “cycles” of Micah which alternatively warn of judgment then foretells of redemption and salvation are not unified enough to be the work of a single author. This overlooks the obvious counter-objections that 1) the book is unified as an overall whole, and 2) other prophetic authors juxtaposed judgment/salvation prophecies.

The majority of scholars do not consider this claim to be a significant objection to Micah having a single author.

NOTABLE QUOTABLES

• Micah 5:2
• Micah 6:8

DID YOU KNOW?

• Micah gets quoted often elsewhere in the Bible.  In the OT, we first see Micah 3:12 quoted in Jeremiah 26:18, showing that Micah was known and apparently canonical by Jeremiah’s time. Micah 3:10 is also quoted in Habakkuk 2:12.  In the NT, Micah 5:2 is quoted by the priests in Matthew 2:6, and Christ quotes Micah 7:6 in Matthew 10:35-36.
• To sit under one’s own vine and fig tree was a proverbial picture of peace, contentment, and security (Micah 4:4).
• “Seven…even eight” is a figurative expression for “an indefinite number” (Micah 5:5).

Other Works Referenced

• Apologetics Study Bible, “Micah”
• Archaeological Study Bible, “Introduction to Micah”
• ESV Study Bible, “Introduction to Micah”
• MacArthur Study Bible, “Micah”
• NET Bible, Micah
• NIV Study Bible, Micah
• Reformation Study Bible, “Micah”
• The Baker Illustrated Bible Handbook, “Micah”
• Dever, The Message of the Old Testament
• Driscoll, A Book You’ll Actually Read On the Old Testament
• Knight, The Layman’s Bible Handbook

by Stephen Rodgers

JONAH IN 10 WORDS OR LESS

“Reluctant prophet, running from God, is swallowed by giant fish.”

TITLE

Like the majority of the other prophetic books, Jonah is named for the prophet who is central to the narrative.

Per the MSB:

Following the lead of the Hebrew Masoretic text (MT), the title of the book is derived from the principal character, Jonah (meaning “dove”), the son of Amittai (Jonah 1:1). Both the Septuagint and the Latin Vulgate ascribe the same name.

AUTHOR & AUDIENCE

Unlike many of the other prophetic books, nowhere does Jonah make a direct claim to authorship of the book that bears his name.  In fact, some have argued that since the book is written in the third-person, Jonah could not be the author.  However, this overlooks the fact that writing of oneself in the third-person was a common ANE practice (Ex. 11:3; 1 Sam. 12:11).

Given the auto-biographical information that is known by the author, it seems that Jonah himself is the most probable candidate for authorship.

The original audience of Jonah would have been the northern kingdom of Israel in the time of Jeroboam II.

DATE

Assuming that the book is intended as history (see INTERPRETIVE CHALLENGES), Jonah can actually be dated with some measure of precision.

Per the MSB:

According to 2 Kin. 14:25, Jonah came from Gath-hepher near Nazareth. The context places him during the long and prosperous reign of Jeroboam II (ca. 793–758 B.C.), making him a prophet to the northern tribes just prior to Amos during the first half of the eighth century B.C., ca. 760 B.C. The Pharisees were wrong when they said “no prophet has arisen out of Galilee” (John 7:52), because Jonah was a Galilean. 

Scholars who assume that the book is fictional often date it in the post-exilic period, up to and including the 3rd century BC. However it should be noted that there are very few (if any) textual reasons to support that late date (see OBJECTIONS).

BACKGROUND & SETTING

Per the MSB:

As a prophet to the 10 northern tribes of Israel, Jonah shares a background and setting with Amos. The nation enjoyed a time of relative peace and prosperity. Both Syria and Assyria were weak, allowing Jeroboam II to enlarge the northern borders of Israel to where they had been in the days of David and Solomon (2 Kin. 14:23–27). Spiritually, however, it was a time of poverty; religion was ritualistic and increasingly idolatrous, and justice had become perverted. Peacetime and wealth had made her bankrupt spiritually, morally, and ethically (cf. 2 Kin. 14:24; Amos 4:1ff.; 5:10–13). As a result, God was to punish her by bringing destruction and captivity from the Assyrians in 722 B.C. Nineveh’s repentance may have been aided by the two plagues (765 and 759 B.C.) and a solar eclipse (763 B.C.), preparing them for Jonah’s judgment message.

HISTORICAL & THEOLOGICAL THEMES

There are three major themes that run through Jonah:

• God’s Sovereignty. Throughout the text, God is shown to be in control of life, nature, and all circumstances (Jonah 1:4, 9, 14, 17; 2:10; 4:6-8).
• God’s Compassion and Mercy. God loves even the adversaries of His people and will show them mercy when they repent (Jonah 3:10, 4:2, 11). Throughout the text, Jonah’s provincial and ethno-centric attitude is shown to be in sharp contrast to the God who desires that all should repent (2 Peter 3:9).
• Mission. Jonah foreshadows the NT mission to proclaim God and His message to the whole world (Jonah 1:1-2, 3:1-2), including those who oppose God (Jonah 4:11; Matt. 5:44). In so doing, it is declared that ultimately it is God who saves and who is the source of salvation (Jonah 2:9).

INTERPRETIVE CHALLENGES

The major question regarding Jonah is whether the story is meant to be understood as non-fiction (history) or as fiction (an allegory, midrash, or parable). While there are some elements of the story that could be perceived as exageratted or hyperbolic, it should be noted that Christ Himself regarded the story as literal (Matt. 12:38–41; 16:4; Luke 11:29–32).

While some commentators believe that his prefiguring actually implies that Jonah died and was resurrected (J. Vernon McGee being the most notable), most conservative scholars do not believe that the text requires that interpretation.

LITERARY FEATURES

Per the ESVSB:

The main category for the book is satire—the exposure of human vice or folly. The four elements of satire take the following form in the book of Jonah: (1) the object of attack is Jonah and what he represents—a bigotry and ethnocentrism that regarded God as the exclusive property of the believing community (in the OT, the nation of Israel); (2) the satiric vehicle is narrative or story; (3) the satiric norm or standard by which Jonah’s bad attitudes are judged is the character of God, who is portrayed as a God of universal mercy, whose mercy is not limited by national boundaries; (4) thesatiric tone is laughing, with Jonah emerging as a laughable figure—someone who runs away from God and is caught by a fish, and as a childish and pouting prophet who prefers death over life without his shade tree. 

OBJECTIONS

Skeptical commentators often note a number of alleged issues with Jonah:

• A biological or factual question as to the “great fish” that swallowed Jonah. There are a couple points that need to be made here: 1) the exact creature that swallows Jonah is never made clear, so arguments as to the diameter of cetaceans tends to miss the point, and 2) the simple fact is that this is intended to be understood as miraculous (and not merely providential), and so attempts to explain the occurrence in purely naturalistic terms also miss the point.
• A textual question as to Jonah’s song of deliverance in chapter 2. Some have argued that the timing of the song makes no sense since Jonah had not yet escaped the fish. However, this overlooks the fact that Jonah may well have been aware that he had escaped death by drowning.
• A historical question as to the size/population of Nineveh. The stock objections here are that while Nineveh was certainly large, it would not have taken three days to traverse it (Jonah 3:3). Additionally, the objection that a city that contained 120,000 children (Jonah 4:11) is larger than any known metropolis in the ANE. The “three days” phrase is ambiguous at best, and could refer to the time required to traverse the boundaries of the city limits, the time required to visit all urban quarters, or the time required to conduct business. In regards to the population, many translators do not believe that the 120,000 refers to children, but to the Ninevites in general.

NOTABLE QUOTABLES

• Jonah 2:9
• Jonah 4:11

DID YOU KNOW?

• Jonah is a rare instance of a prophecy that did  not come true, precisely because the people heeded God’s warning and repented.
• The word that literally means “big fish” or “huge fish” in the Bible (and is commonly translated “whale” today), was often translated or depicted as a “sea serpent” or “sea monster” in ancient times.
• God seems to have a bit of a sense of humor when it comes to the repentence of Nineveh. In their eagerness to demonstrate their sincerity, the king ordered that every person wear sackcloth (a common image of remorse), and that the practice be extened to the livestock as well (Jonah 3:8). Later, when Jonah throws his hissy-fit over the fact that God spared the Ninevites, God specifically mentions the number of people…and cattle (Jonah 4:11).
• According to Jewish tradition, Jonah was the son of the widow of Zerephath that Elijah raised from the dead (1 Kin. 17:8–24).

Other Works Referenced

• Apologetics Study Bible, “Jonah”
• Archaeological Study Bible, “Introduction to Jonah”
• ESV Study Bible, “Introduction to Jonah”
• MacArthur Study Bible, “Jonah”
• NET Bible, Jonah
• NIV Study Bible, Jonah
• Reformation Study Bible, “Jonah”
• The Baker Illustrated Bible Handbook, “Jonah”
• Dever, The Message of the Old Testament
• Driscoll, A Book You’ll Actually Read On the Old Testament
• Knight, The Layman’s Bible Handbook

by Stephen Rodgers

OBADIAH IN 10 WORDS OR LESS

“Edom will suffer for participating in Jerusalem’s destruction.”

TITLE

Like almost all the other prophetic books, the book of Obadiah takes its name from the prophet respon­si­ble for its content (Ob. 1:1).  Unfortunately, that name occurs numerous times throughout the OT (1Ki 18:3–16; 1Ch 3:21; 7:3; 8:38; 9:16; 12:9; 27:19; 2Ch 17:7; 34:12; Ezr 8:9; Ne 10:5; 12:25), making it difficult to pin down exactly who it refers to.

There is also a theory that “Obadiah” (and also “Malachi”) were intended as titles, not as proper names.  However, this theory is a minority view that doesn’t enjoy significant popularity among scholars, since it tends to further complicate a situation that is already starved for information.

AUTHOR & AUDIENCE

I’ll briefly discuss some difficulties with placing the author, but you might want to skip ahead to the DATE section and then come back here.

The short version is as follows:

• The vast majority of scholars agree that we don’t have enough information to firmly establish Obadiah’s identity.
• Just to further muddy the waters, the minority of scholars who do make declarations regarding Obadiah’s identity tend to disagree with one another (the author of the introduction to “Obadiah” in the Archaeological Study Bible emphatically denies that the Obadiah in 1 Kings 18 could have been the author of the book, whereas C.F. Keil emphatically affirms the claim in his book The Twelve Minor Prophets).
• The dating of the invasion in which Edom participated in an attack against Jerusalem would help to resolve the issue, but as you’ll see, that is precisely the point that is most hotly contested.

DATE

The MSB does a better job than most of the materials in laying out the difficulties with dating Obadiah:

The date of writing is equally difficult to determine, though we know it is tied to the Edomite assault on Jerusalem described in vv. 10–14. Obadiah apparently wrote shortly after the attack. There were 4 significant invasions of Jerusalem in OT history: 1) by Shishak, king of Egypt, ca. 925 B.C. during the reign of Rehoboam (1 Kin. 14:25,26; 2 Chr. 12); 2) by the Philistines and Arabians between 848–841 B.C. during the reign of Jehoram of Judah (2 Chr. 21:8–20); 3) by Jehoash, king of Israel, ca. 790 B.C. (2 Kin. 14; 2 Chr. 25); and 4) by Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, in the fall of Jerusalem in 586 B.C. Of these 4, only the second and the fourth are possible fits with historical data.

It should be noted that while the MSB goes on to defend #2 over and against #4 (and gives reasons for doing so, as does Constable), this view is itself a minority position. The majority of scholars surveyed for this article agree that the invasion during Jehoram’s reign and the Babylonian invasion are the likely candidates, then lean towards the latter.

(For anyone interested in an even more exhaustive discussion on the topic of possible invasion events, their corresponding chronologies, and scholarly opinion, I highly recommend Constable’s notes on Obadiah in the NET Bible (in the “Date” section), which I’ll decline to reproduce here for reasons of space.)

BACKGROUND & SETTING

The Edomites were the descendants of Esau, just as the Israelites were the descendants of Jacob (Gen. 25). They settled in the rugged mountains to the south of the Dead Sea, where they were known to launch raids from the security of their virtually impregnable mountain strongholds.

The book of Obadiah is primarily concerned with condemning Edom for their participation in an attack on Jerusalem (as part of a larger invasion by a foreign power), and assuring Israel they would not go unpunished.

Per the MSB:

The Edomites opposed Saul (ca. 1043–1011 B.C.) and were subdued under David (ca. 1011–971 B.C.) and Solomon (ca. 971–931 B.C.). They fought against Jehoshaphat (ca. 873–848 B.C.) and successfully rebelled against Jehoram (ca. 853–841 B.C.). They were again conquered by Judah under Amaziah (ca. 796–767 B.C.), but they regained their freedom during the reign of Ahaz (ca. 735–715 B.C.). Edom was later controlled by Assyria and Babylon; and in the fifth century B.C. the Edomites were forced by the Nabateans to leave their territory. They moved to the area of southern Palestine and became known as Idumeans. Herod the Great, an Idumean, became king of Judea under Rome in 37 B.C. In a sense, the enmity between Esau and Jacob was continued in Herod’s attempt to murder Jesus. The Idumeans participated in the rebellion of Jerusalem against Rome and were defeated along with the Jews by Titus in A.D. 70. Ironically, the Edomites applauded the destruction of Jerusalem in 586 B.C. (cf. Ps. 137:7) but died trying to defend it in A.D. 70. After that time they were never heard of again. As Obadiah predicted, they would be “cut off forever” (Ob. 1:10); “and no survivor shall remain of the house of Esau” (Ob 1:18).

HISTORICAL & THEOLOGICAL THEMES

There are two significant themes in the book of Obadiah:

• Judgment for Edom. Obadiah assures his audience that God will punish those who attacked Israel.
• Deliverance and Restoration for Israel. Obadiah also teaches that God is sovereign over the nations. While the enemies of Israel achieved momentary victory, ultimately they would be defeated by God and their lands would be given to His people (Ob. 1:19–21).

INTERPRETIVE CHALLENGES

While the majority of uncertainty regarding Obadiah tends to focus on the chronological period in which it was written (see DATE), there is a secondary issue as well: the fact that there are striking similarities between Obadiah 1:1-9 and Jeremiah 49:7-22. Scholars who maintain that one prophet was familiar with (and borrowed from) the other tend to be divided along chronological lines. Those committed to an early dating of Obadiah have no problem suggesting that it was Jeremiah who borrowed from Obadiah. However, those committed to a later dating of Obadiah tend to support the opposite.

There is a third line of thought that opines that both Obadiah and Jeremiah drew from an unknown third source.

LITERARY FEATURES

Per the ESVSB:

The primary genre is prophecy, and as is customary in prophecy, the predictions of the future are couched in oracles of judgment and an oracle of salvation or deliverance. The oracles of judgment against Edom are examples of satire, with discernible objects of attack and a satiric norm by which Edom and other nations are criticized. 

OBJECTIONS

While not an objection per se, secular scholars tend to assume that Obadiah must have written after the destruction of Jerusalem at the hands of the Babylonians, given the vividness of his description.

NOTABLE QUOTABLES

• Obadiah 1:15
• Obadiah 1:17

DID YOU KNOW?

• Obadiah is the shortest book in the OT.
• Obadiah is not quoted in the NT.
• Edom, particularly Teman, was known for its wise men. Eliphaz (one of Job’s three friends), was a Temanite.

Other Works Referenced

• Apologetics Study Bible, “Obadiah”
• Archaeological Study Bible, “Introduction to Obadiah”
• ESV Study Bible, “Introduction to Obadiah”
• MacArthur Study Bible, “Obadiah”
• NET Bible, Obadiah
• NIV Study Bible, Obadiah
• Reformation Study Bible, “Obadiah”
• The Baker Illustrated Bible Handbook, “Obadiah” (as with other books I’ve mentioned, the article here is particularly brief and disappointing)
• Know Your Bible
• Dever, The Message of the Old Testament
• Driscoll, A Book You’ll Actually Read On the Old Testament
• Knight, The Layman’s Bible Handbook