by Stephen Rodgers

There’s an old expression about God closing doors and opening windows. I always thought that was both odd and awesome, since it seemed to call upon Christians to execute maneuvers most often associated with catburglers and second-story men. Except in this case, instead of metaphorical doors and windows we’re going to be dealing with actual hyperlinks on the internet.

CLOSED DOOR

At some point last week, Crossway decided to remove the links to most of the content from the ESV Study Bible that was previously available online.  Following the example of other publishers (Thomas Nelson, Zondervon, etc.) they had previously exposed their book introductions (which was fairly standard) as well as their articles and essays (which was exceedingly generous of them).

They have since decided to remove that content.  It hasn’t been deleted, it’s simply been moved behind their paywall.  So if you’ve registered your ESV Study Bible on their website, you can still view the material by logging in to esvbible.org. (Note: I believe that you still get a free code for this with the purchase of any new ESV Study Bible. They also allow you to purchase a digital version of all the content from the MacArthur Study Bible and integrate that as well, which results in you owning a seriously powerful tool for Bible study that can be accessed from any internet connection).

By the way, since I’m about to say some less-than-complimentary things about the results of that decision, let me take a moment to make one thing clear: it was absolutely their right to make that choice.  They paid to develop the material, and if they wish to be more aggressive in monetizing it, they are well within their prerogative as a publisher. Nonetheless, exercising that right several years after it’s been freely available is a bit odd.

Unfortunately, since I can’t hyperlink to your physical book, and since their bible study web interface is fairly non-standard, it’s a pretty big blow to referencing their material online.  (In other words, while the material is there and at least nominally searchable, the techniques and technology that apply to searching, storing, referencing, and indexing a web document are now useless). And as a result of this, quite a few links from previous BOB articles are now broken. So, since I’m going to have to take the time to touch every article to remove those links, I might as well take the opportunity to add quite a few resources that have come to my attention since then.

OPEN WINDOW

As of the publishing of this article, all previous articles in the BOB series have been updated with new and improved reference material.

Briefly, here is a list of the study Bible resources I commonly use that have some corresponding availability online:

• Apologetics Study Bible – Surprisingly, this Bible is indexed and available on Google Books; you can jump to various books of the Bible by using the pull-down menu
• Archaeological Study Bible – Very little of this material is available online, but you can poke around their website and see what you can find (for example, they have a .pdf version of Genesis that is worth the download)
• ESV Study Bible – As mentioned above, most of this content is no longer freely available, however a few features can still be downloaded. The free version is still available at esvbible.org.
• MacArthur Study Bible – GTY actually makes all their Bible Introductions available online
• NET Bible – I’ve previously mentioned the NET Bible, so I won’t go into much detail.  Suffice to say this is my go-to reference for translation notes.
• NIV Study Bible – Biblica.com makes all the book introductions and selected articles available online
• Reformation Study Bible – Very little of this material is available for free online, but Ligonier recently made the introduction to all four of the Gospels available, and have announced they will be doing the same with the books of the Pentateuch (which will be linked as they become available). (UPDATE: a few sample pages are also available)

I also own and use the Chronological Study Bible, but I haven’t found it particular useful for this series.  I highly recommend having a chronological understanding of the events of the Bible however: which were sequential, which were concurrent, which are disputed, etc. For understanding that, a chronological Bible is a fantastic resource, or you can simply avail yourself to a chronological reading plan (esv.org has a list; the .pdf version of the chronological plan is particularly good).

If anyone wants to talk about Bibles in general or study Bibles in particular, I’d be happy to chat with you; either find me at church or email me directly. Perhaps later in the series we can discuss some other resources as well.

For those of you studying along at home, I hope you find this helpful.

by Stephen Rodgers

NEHEMIAH IN 10 WORDS OR LESS

“Returning Jewish Exiles rebuild the broken walls of Jerusalem.”

TITLE

In the ear­li­est Hebrew man­u­scripts, Ezra and Nehemiah were con­sid­ered a sin­gle book. They were later divided into two scrolls (by Origin), known to the Jews as 1 Ezra and 2 Ezra, which became known as Ezra and Nehemiah in English Bibles (it is inter­est­ing to note that this diverges from the typ­i­cal pat­tern, as they are 1 and 2 Ezra in both the Greek Septuigent (LXX) and the Latin Vulgate (Vg.)).

The book takes its name from the main character Nehemiah (“Jehovah comforts”), a Jewish leader who served as the cupbearer to King Ataxerxes of Persia. (See AUTHOR &AUDIENCE)

AUTHOR & AUDIENCE

Jewish and Christian tra­di­tion both ascribe author­ship of Ezra-Nehemiah to Ezra. This tra­di­tion is largely inde­pen­dent of whether Ezra was also the author (“the Chronicler”) of 1 and 2 Chronicles. Although the author of Ezra never states his author­ship, inter­nal argu­ments (the use of both Aramaic and Hebrew, access to tem­ple and Persian records, the shift from 1^st per­son to 3^rd per­son) favor him strongly.

We know the fol­low­ing about Ezra:

• He was a capa­ble and respected leader, as he led the sec­ond wave of exiles in their return to Israel from captivity
• He was a godly man, and func­tioned as a scribe of the law (Ezra 7:10)
• He had access to the royal archives of the Persian Empire (Ezra 1:2–4; 4:9–22; 5:7–17; 6:3–12)
• He was a con­tem­po­rary of Nehemiah (Neh 8:1–9; 12:36)

According to Jewish tra­di­tion, he was also the founder of the Great Synagogue (aka “Great Assembly”), where the OT canon was first for­mally recognized.

The intended audi­ence of Nehemiah was the gen­er­a­tions of Israelites who returned from exile in Babylon. The author clearly wanted his read­ers to rec­og­nize the power and love of God toward his cho­sen peo­ple and their covenant respon­si­bil­i­ties toward Him.

DATE

Since we know that Nehemiah 1 begins in 446 BC, with Nehemiah returning to Jerusalem in 445 BC, the book could not have been written prior to that.  Furthermore, the book documents both his first (445 BC to 433 BC) and second (approximately 424 BC) terms as governor of Jerusalem (as recorded in Nehemiah 1-12 and 13, respectively). It is likely that Nehemiah was written by Ezra sometime after or during his second term, but prior to 400 BC.

BACKGROUND & SETTING

Hundreds of years prior to the time of Ezra, God had used the prophet Jeremiah to warn His peo­ple that if they broke their covenant with Him, He would allow another nations to take them into slav­ery (Jer 2:14–25). Israel failed to heed that warn­ing, and God brought the Assyrians and Babylonians down upon them as pun­ish­ment. Eventually the Babylonians them­selves were con­quered by the Persians, and the king (Cyrus) decreed that the Jews could return to Jerusalem.

We know from the previous article that decree is where the book of Ezra begins; Nehemiah begins some 92 years after that (in 446 BC).

HISTORICAL & THEOLOGICAL THEMES

There are three themes that are prevalent in the book of Nehemiah:

• Renewal. It helps to understand that there are two rebuildings occurring in Nehemiah: there is the obvious rebuilding of the wall, but also the less-obvious rebuilding of the Jewish nation and religious obedience. And just as the beginning of the book is filled with suspense and overwhelming odds regarding the wall, the book ends in a suspenseful manner regarding the people forgetting their obedience to the LORD until Nehemiah returns to personally oversee it.
• Prayer. Nehemiah is characterized often by his work (in my line of work, he is occasionally referred to as the “patron saint of project managers”), but he should also be recognized for how he brought his work before the LORD in prayer (Neh 1:4; 2:4; 4:4; 5:19; 6:9,14; 13:14,22,29,31).
• Opposition. Nehemiah did not have an easy job, and he was opposed in almost every imaginable way (Neh 2:19-20; 4:1-15; 5:1-19; 6:1-14). However, with God’s help he was able to overcome the opposition he faced.

INTERPRETIVE CHALLENGES

There are a couple of minor issues that should be understood when reading Nehemiah in order to avoid errors:

• Since much of Jerusalem is explained in regards to the gates, you should familiarize yourself with a good map of the city.
• Also, the reader should understand that the events in Nehemiah 1-12 took place over the span of approximately one year, that there is a 20-year gap between chapters 12 and 13, and that Nehemiah actually served two governorships in Jerusalem (see DATE).

LITERARY FEATURES

The pri­mary form of Nehemiah is his­tor­i­cal nar­ra­tive, specif­i­cally…

Nehemiah is a sequel to Ezra. Two main actions occur: the rebuilding of the wall of Jerusalem and the recommitment of the returned exiles to fulfill their covenant obligations. There is something for virtually everyone—a general’s diary, a governor’s report, a civil record, a management handbook, and a memoir—all in one short book. (ESV Study Bible)

OBJECTIONS

There are two objections that are sometimes raised against Nehemiah, a chronological objection (which was previously addressed in the article on Ezra), and a literary objection.

• Some scholars claim that Nehemiah was not intended to be read as history, but rather is some sort of allegorical fiction, much like Aesop’s fables.  However, to come to this conclusion, you have to deliberately overlook a number of literary conventions that would seem to ground it solidly in history: 1) the dating of events (Neh 1:1), 2) references to historical settings confirmed by archaelogists (such as Susa), and 3) the naming of historical personages (King Ataxerxes, Sanballat, etc.).

NOTABLE QUOTABLES

• Nehemiah 1:11
• Nehemiah 5:19

DID YOU KNOW?

• The NT does not directly quote the book of Nehemiah.
• Nehemiah is never mentioned outside of the book of Nehemiah.
• The cupbearer’s duty was to choose and taste the king’s wine to ensure it was not poisoned. The need for these precautions is obvious when you consider the intrigues that plagued the Persian court: Xerxes (the father of Ataxerxes I), was killed in his own bedchamber by a courtier.
• The Sheep Gate (Neh 3:1) was still known in NT times as being near the Pool of Bethesda.

Other Works Referenced

• Apologetics Study Bible, “Nehemiah Introduction”
• Archaeological Study Bible, “Introduction to Nehemiah”
• ESV Study Bible, “Introduction to Nehemiah”
• MacArthur Study Bible, “Nehemiah”
• NET Bible, Nehemiah
• NIV Study Bible, “Nehemiah”
• Reformation Study Bible, “The Book of Nehemiah”
• The Baker Illustrated Bible Handbook, “Nehemiah”
• Know Your Bible
• Driscoll, A Book You’ll Actually Read On the Old Testament
• Knight, The Layman’s Bible Handbook

by Stephen Rodgers

EZRA IN 10 WORDS OR LESS

“Spiritual renewal begins after the Jews return from exile.”

TITLE

In the earliest Hebrew manuscripts, Ezra and Nehemiah were considered a single book. They were later divided into two scrolls, known to the Jews as 1 Ezra and 2 Ezra, which became known as Ezra and Nehemiah in English Bibles (it is interesting to note that this diverges from the typical pattern, as they are 1 and 2 Ezra in both the Greek Septuigent (LXX) and the Latin Vulgate (Vg.)).

The book takes its name from the traditionally-held author Ezra (“Jehovah helps”), a famous scribe-priest of the time. (See AUTHOR & AUDIENCE)

AUTHOR & AUDIENCE

Jewish and Christian tradition both ascribe authorship of Ezra-Nehemiah to Ezra.  This tradition is largely independent of whether Ezra was also the author (“the Chronicler”) of 1 and 2 Chronicles. Although the author of Ezra never states his authorship, internal arguments (the use of both Aramaic and Hebrew, access to temple and Persian records, the shift from 1st person to 3rd person) favor him strongly.

We know the following about Ezra:

• He was a capable and respected leader, as he led the second wave of exiles in their return to Israel from captivity
• He was a godly man, and functioned as a scribe of the law (Ezra 7:10)
• He had access to the royal archives of the Persian Empire (Ezra 1:2-4; 4:9-22; 5:7-17; 6:3-12)
• He was a contemporary of Nehemiah (Neh 8:1-9; 12:36)

According to Jewish tradition, he was also the founder of the Great Synagogue (aka “Great Assembly”), where the OT canon was first formally recognized.

The intended audience of Ezra was the generations of Israelites who returned from exile in Babylon. The author clearly wanted his readers to recognize the power and love of God toward his chosen people and their covenant responsibilities toward Him.

DATE

Since we know that Ezra led the second return from Persia in approximately 458 BC (the first led by Zerubbabel in 538 BC and the third led by Nehemiah in 445 BC), it is likely that the completed book was written sometime in the next several decades (457-444 BC would be a likely range).

Chronologically speaking, Zerubbabel’s return (538 BC to 516 BC) is documented in Ezra 1-6, and the second return (458 BC) begins in Ezra 7:1.

BACKGROUND & SETTING

Hundreds of years prior to the time of Ezra, God had used the prophet Jeremiah to warn His people that if they broke their covenant with Him, He would allow another nations to take them into slavery (Jer 2:14-25). Israel failed to heed that warning, and God brought the Assyrians and Babylonians down upon them as punishment. Eventually the Babylonians themselves were conquered by the Persians, and the king (Cyrus) decreed that the Jews could return to Jerusalem.

That decree is where the book of Ezra begins.

HISTORICAL & THEOLOGICAL THEMES

There are two prevalent themes in the book of Ezra:

• God’s Sovereignty. The events of Ezra show God’s sovereignty in keeping His promises, even extending to being sovereign over future events and foreign kings.
• Restoration. In some ways, the events of Ezra parallel the events in the Pentateuch and Joshua: God makes promises to His people, frees them from slavery, provides a land for them amidst their enemies…contingent upon their obedience to Him.  Even specific events (the rebuilding of the temple) have obvious parallels, although Ezra notably does not mention that the presence of the LORD returned to occupy the temple this time.

INTERPRETIVE CHALLENGES

As with any book of the Bible, there are a number of issues that need to be resolved.  To my mind, the two most interesting are reconciling the chronologies of the post-Exilic prophets (Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi) with Ezra, as well as reconciling the chronology of Esther with Ezra.  In regards to the prophets:

• Haggai and Zechariah prophesied during the period of Ezra 4-6 when temple construction was resumed.
• Malachi wrote during Nehemiah’s revisit to Persia (Neh 13:66)

LITERARY FEATURES

The primary form of Ezra is historical narrative, specifically…

…a story that narrates the return of groups of people to their homeland after exile. But the flow of the story is interrupted by a variety of documentary material—lists of people and supplies, transcripts of official documents, the genealogy of Ezra, royal and other official letters, memoirs, and prayer. Sometimes the material tells a story; at other times it resembles a daily newspaper or modern archived material. (ESV Study Bible)

OBJECTIONS

There are three objections that are occasionally raised against the historical reliability of Ezra: one based on the language of the Persian decrees, one based on a supposed late date of Ezra, and one based on alleged discrepancies between Ezra and Nehemiah.

• Scholars at one point doubted the authenticity of the proclamations of the Persian government (Ezra 1:1-5; 4:8-10,11-16,17-22; 5:6-17; 6:6-12; 7:11-26). They claimed that the language seemed too theological and/or didn’t follow standard Persian form. However recent discoveries of other letters from the Jewish community at Elephantine, Egypt has silenced these criticisms.
• Some scholars have tried to assign a later date to Ezra by pointing to the geopolitical climate of Egypt during the reign of Artaxerxes II (404 BC to 359 BC) as being the only likely candidate for the events described in the book.  The reasoning goes that Persia would only be interested in strengthening their relationship with a buffer region during a time of unrest; while this may be true, it also overlooks the fact that Egypt also revolted around 459 BC and the rebellion was not put down until around 454 BC.
• Finally, some claim that the book of Ezra is not reliable due to alleged contradictions between it and Nehemiah. However these alleged contradictions tend to rely on a skewed or suspect reading of the relevant texts. For example, the issue with Eliashib the high priest can be easily reconciled with the fact that the Eliashib mentioned in Nehemiah 3:1 and 20 is most likely Eliashib II, a later priest.

NOTABLE QUOTABLES

• Ezra 7:10
• Ezra 8:22

DID YOU KNOW?

• The NT does not directly quote the book of Ezra.
• The story of Esther fits into the interval of nearly 60 years that separates Ezra 6:22 from Ezra 7:1
• ANE kings maintained an elaborate network of informers and spies, including those mentioned in Ezra 5:3-5

Other Works Referenced

• Apologetics Study Bible, “Ezra Introduction”
• Archaeological Study Bible, “Introduction to Ezra”
• ESV Study Bible, “Introduction to Ezra”
• MacArthur Study Bible, “Ezra”
• NET Bible, Ezra
• NIV Study Bible, Ezra
• Reformation Study Bible, “The Book of Ezra”
• The Baker Illustrated Bible Handbook, “Ezra”
• Know Your Bible
• Driscoll, A Book You’ll Actually Read On the Old Testament
• Knight, The Layman’s Bible Handbook

by Stephen Rodgers

1 & 2 CHRONICLES IN 10 WORDS OR LESS

• 1 Chronicles: “King David’s reign is detailed and analyzed.”
• 2 Chronicles: “The history of Israel from Solomon to division to destruction.”

TITLE

In the early Hebrew man­u­scripts, 1 and 2 Chronicles were con­sid­ered a sin­gle book. They were divided into sep­a­rate books by the trans­la­tors of the Greek ver­sion, the Septuagint (LXX), which was later copied by the Latin Vulgate (Vg.), and English trans­la­tions (where they are referred to as “1 Chronicles” and “2 Chronicles”). The LXX des­ig­nated 1 and 2 Chronicles as “the things omitted” (Paraleipomena) whereas the Vg. labeled them “The Chronicles of the Entire Sacred History” (which is where we get the term “chronicles”).

Like Kings, the division of 1 and 2 Chronicles has long been con­sid­ered to be one of copy­ist con­ve­nience (allow­ing the work to fit on standard-sized scrolls) rather than con­tent or theme, and so should be under­stood as a uni­fied volume.

In any event, the ear­li­est Hebrew man­u­scripts enti­tled the book “the annals of the days” (Dibre Hayyamim) after 1 Chronicles 27:24.

AUTHOR & AUDIENCE

Jewish tradition claims that Ezra the priest (Ezra 7:1-6) was the author, often alluded to in the books as “the Chronicler” but nowhere directly identified. Some modern scholarship has supported this view, but the question of authorship is heavily influenced by both ones view of the original form of the Chronicler’s work and its relationship to Ezra-Nehemiah (because Ezra begins by repeating the final verses of 2 Chronicles, some scholars believe the same author wrote both; other scholars believe this is nothing more than a scribal convention to indicate order).

Regardless, internal evidence indicates the following about the author:

• The author was a priest or a Levite with scribal training
• The author was employed in the service of the temple during the Persian period (539-332 BC)
• The author had access to temple records

DATE

Somewhat similar to Samuel and Kings, the book of Chronicles does not provide an exact indication as to the date of composition. However, last individual cited in the Davidic geneology  is Anani (1 Ch 3:24) who was born somewhere around 450-445 BC, making that the earliest possible date of composition. Most scholars believe that it was written no later than 400 BC, giving us a likely 45-50 year window of opportunity for composition.

BACKGROUND & SETTING

Chronologically speaking, Chronicles is a recap of the entire OT. The Chronicler begins with Adam (1 Ch 1:1), gets to David by chapter 3, spends the rest of the first third of the book on various genealogies, and then focuses back on the reign of David for the final two-thirds of the book. 2 Chronicles begins with a nine-chapter recap of the reign of Solomon, and book then spends the last 27 chapters focused on the monarchy of the southern kingdom of Judah (unlike Kings, which recounted the monarchies of both Israel and Judah). Much of the information is repeated from Samuel and Kings, although the sins and indiscretions of David are conspicuous in their absence.

(For a great chart that highlights the unique and redundant narratives of Samuel/Kings/Chronicles, see the table titled “Comparison of 1-2 Chronicles with 2 Samuel and 1-2 Kings” in the ESV Study Bible).

It should also be noted that like Kings, Chronicles is interpreted history. The author clearly expected his readers to be familiar with Samuel and Kings, and wrote both to provide a corrective understanding of Israel’s history and to provoke a response to the spiritual apathy of the time.

To understand Chronicles, you have to understand the setting: the Jews had returned from their 70 years in captivity to a homeland that was both unfamiliar and uncertain. In contrast to their former status, they had no king (the monarchy was destroyed and they were under Persian governance per Ezra 5:3; 6:6), no fortified central city (Jerusalem had been sacked and the walls destroyed per Neh 1-7), no temple (the glorious temple of Solomon had been destroyed per Ezra 3), no distinct homeland (in their absence, hostile tribes had moved back into the land per Ezra 4; Neh 4), no divine blessings (aside from their return), no national wealth (the riches of the Davidic and Solomonic dynasties were long spent or stolen), and no certain divine support (God’s presence had departed per Ezekiel 8-11).

The Jews faced the difficult task of rebuilding, and so the Chronicler wrote a history and emphasized genealogies to remind them of the plan and purpose of God for their land, nation, monarchy, priests, temple, and worship.

HISTORICAL & THEOLOGICAL THEMES

There are a number of themes that are prevalent throughout Chronicles:

• The Davidic Covenant. The genealogies of 1 Chronicles 1:1-9:44 emphasize the tribes of Judah and Benjamin because the Chronicler is primarily concerned with the Davidic dynasty. God had made a promise to David regarding his descendant (1 Ch 17:7-14) and Chronicles demonstrates His faithfulness to that promise.
• Worship. There is an emphasis throughout Chronicles on worship, beginning with David’s preparation for building the temple, the building of it by Solomon, and its symbol as the presence of God among his people (2 Ch 7:12,16; 33:7)
• Blessing and Judgment. Much like the author of Kings, the Chronicler emphasized that blessings followed obedience (2 Ch 7:17-18; 15:12-15; 17:3-6; 30:15-20; 31:20-21) but that God’s judgment followed disobedience (2 Ch 12:1-2; 34:19-21).

INTERPRETIVE CHALLENGES

There are a number of challenges that are presented by Chronicles that we can deal with briefly:

• Authorship. As previously mentioned, while the author of Chronicles is never identified with certainty, the author of Ezra-Nehemiah is considered by a number of scholars to be Ezra, and some of those scholars argue that Ezra is therefore the author of Chronicles due to the repetition of material at the end of 2 Chronicles and the beginning of Ezra. Suffice to say that while this is an interesting topic to discuss, it’s hardly conclusive one way or the other, and ultimately has little to no bearing on the texts themselves.
• Multiple Sources. Some have suggested that the Chronicler’s use of a variety of contributing sources presents a problem to the doctrine of inerrancy, inspiration, or both. While there isn’t space here to exhaustively deal with that, suffice to say that whether revelation comes through primary, secondary, or tertiary means makes it no less revelatory.
• Variations in Genealogies. The short version here is that a number of genealogies in Chronicles appear to be incorrect when compared to genealogies from other Biblical sources. This can be easily explained by the fact that the Chronicler presented genealogies to make thematic points rather than to represent relationships exactly.
• Variations in Spelling and Statistics. ANE spelling and quantifications are often inexact, and most ANE documents (the Bible included) were not concerned with exact spellings. Furthermore, the differences in amounts, statistics, and quantifications can often be reconciled based on the context, or can be  reasonably attributed to copyist errors.

LITERARY FEATURES

The genre of Chronicles is that of a court history.

The ESV Study Bible explains:

1 Chronicles also focuses strongly on the heroic figure of King David. Specific forms of documentary writing include genealogies, inventories, and summaries of events such as lists of David’s victories. There are also speeches or orations, prayers, and a psalm of praise (1 Chron. 16:8–36). The story of David is placed within the encompassing story of God’s dealings with his covenant nation Israel, whose identity assumes a corporate character (repeatedly called “all Israel”)…Second Chronicles is expansive in its scope, tracing the history of a nation as embodied in its kings over a span of 400 years. Because the focus is so thoroughly on individual kings, the book has the feel of an anthology of brief biographies and hero stories. 

OBJECTIONS

Apart from the INTERPRETIVE CHALLENGES listed above, there are no sig­nif­i­cant OBJECTIONS to the book of Chronicles that I’m aware of. Some individuals try to make a fuss over the variations in spelling and statistics between Chronicles and Samuel/Kings, but the vast majority of those are either explainable from genre and context or are obviously copyist errors.

NOTABLE QUOTABLES

• 1 Chronicles 17:14
• 2 Chronicles 6:14
• 2 Chronicles 7:14

DID YOU KNOW?

• The NT does not directly quote 1 or 2 Chronicles
• Names are often spelled differently in Chronicles than in the earlier books. However, this is not unusual or problematic as ANE records were not concerned with standard spellings.

Other Works Referenced

• Apologetics Study Bible, “1 Chronicles Introduction” and “2 Chronicles Introduction”
• Archaeological Study Bible
• ESV Study Bible, “Introduction to 1 & 2 Chronicles”
• MacArthur Study Bible, “First Chronicles” and “Second Chronicles”
• NET Bible, 1 Chronicles and 2 Chronicles
• NIV Study Bible, “1 Chronicles” and “2 Chronicles”
• Reformation Study Bible, “The First Book of Chronicles” and “The Second Book of Chronicles”
• The Baker Illustrated Bible Handbook
• Know Your Bible
• Driscoll, A Book You’ll Actually Read On the Old Testament
• Knight, The Layman’s Bible Handbook

by Stephen Rodgers

1 & 2 KINGS IN 10 WORDS OR LESS

• 1 Kings: “Israel divides into rival northern and southern nations.”
• 2 Kings: “Both Jewish nations are destroyed for their disobedience to God.”

TITLE

In the early Hebrew manuscripts, 1 and 2 Kings were considered a single book. They were divided into separate books by the translators of the Greek version, the Septuagint (LXX), which was later copied by the Latin Vulgate (Vg.), English translations (where they are referred to as “1 Kings” and “2 Kings,” and modern Hebrew Bibles (where they are referred to as “Kings A” and “Kings B”). The LXX designated 1 and 2 Kings as “The Second Book of the Kingdoms” (with our 1 and 2 Samuel as “The First Book of the Kingdoms), whereas the Vg. labeled them “Third and Fourth Kings” (with our 1 and 2 Samuel as “First and Second  Kings”).

The division of 1 and 2 Kings has long been considered to be one of copyist convenience (allowing the work to fit on standard-sized scrolls) rather than content or theme, and so should be understood as a unified volume.

In any event, the earliest Hebrew manuscripts entitled the book “Kings” after the first word in 1 Kings 1:1.

AUTHOR & AUDIENCE

Jewish tradition ascribes the authorship of the book of Kings to Jeremiah, although this is doubtful for a number of reasons:

• 2 Kings ends in Babylon in 561 BC (2 Ki 25:27-30)
• Jeremiah never went to Babylon; he went to Egypt (Jer 43:1-7)
• Finally, (although this is somewhat inconclusive), Jeremiah would have been at least 86 years old by 561 BC

DATE

Much like Samuel, the books of Kings contain no clear indication as to the date of composition. However, there are some indicators that can be noted in passing:

• As previously mentioned, 2 Kings ends in Babylon in 561 BC (2 Ki 25:27-30)
• As there is no mention of the end of Babylonian captivity (in 538 BC), the book of Kings was most likely written somewhere between those dates
• It is generally accepted that the “to this day” statements (1 Ki 8:8; 9:13,20,21; 10:12; 12:19; 2 Ki 2:22; 8:22; 10:27; 14:7; 16:6; 17:23,34,41;21:15) reflect the view of the author/editor’s sources rather than the author/editor himself
• It is possible that the “kings of the west” and “governors of the land” reference in 1 Kings 10:15 indicates that some editing took place later, during the Persian period (539-330 BC)

BACKGROUND & SETTING

Chronologically, the book of Kings begins with the accession of Solomon in 971 BC to the destruction of the temple by the Babylonians in 586 BC. In between, it traces two separate kingdoms and their respective monarchies: Israel and Judah.

It should also be noted briefly that the book of Kings is also interpreted history. The author adopts a viewpoint that is not only historical but also theological, as he relies heavily on the instructions and promises given to Israel by God in Deuteronomy to structure the narrative.

HISTORICAL & THEOLOGICAL THEMES

There are four significant themes that run through the book of Kings:

• Covenant. The history of Israel’s kings is presented from a covenantal view.  Assessments of the reign of various kings is measured by their obedience to the Mosaic Covenant, and the constant use of David as an exemplar for future comparison underscores the historic significance of the Davidic Covenant.
• The one true God. The existance of a single God provided the basis for a single place of worship. The “sin of the house of Jeroboam” (1 Ki 13:34; 15:34;16:2,19,26; 21:22; 22:52) involved creating alternate places of worship (1 Ki 12:25-33), which foreshadowed the fall of both kingdoms into idolatry and…
• Judgment. As a result of their idolatry, both kingdoms were eventually brought under the judgment of God and His covenant curses (Lev 26:27-43; Deut 28:64-68). The northern kingdom of Israel was exiled to Assyria and the southern kingdom of Judah was exiled to Babylon.
• Prophets. God used prophets to call his people back to a covenant relationship with Himself, but they would not listen. The two greatest prophets of this time were Elijah and Elisha, both of whom ministered to the northern kingdom of Israel.

INTERPRETIVE CHALLENGES

There are two significant interpretive challenges to the book of Kings: one historical, and one theological.

From a historical perspective, it can be challenging to determine an accurate chronology of the kings of Israel and Judah due to alleged inconsistencies and contradictions. However, it is possible to demonstrate the general accuracy of the chronology of Kings. Very briefly:

• The alleged contradiction regarding Omri’s reign can be resolved by understanding the different figures given to refer to single-regency and duel-regency separately.
• The book of Kings can also be reconciled with extra-Biblical Greek, Assyrian, and Babylonian sources once co-regencies are taken into account (a period of time when two successive kings, usually father and son, jointly ruled).
• In addition, one must also account for the fact that different rules for determining “years reigned” as well as different calendars were used in the various ANE kingdoms under discussion.

From a theological perspective, much has been made of the issue regarding Solomon’s relationship to the Abrahamic and Davidic Covenants. While some interpret 1 Kings 4:20-21 as the fulfillment of God’s promise to Abraham (and later, to David), this view is problematic:

• While Solomon controlled vast amounts of land, he did not control the land all the way to the Mediterranean Sea (as described in Nu 34:6). Instead we see that Hiram the king of Tyre controlled that land, and dealt with Solomon as an equal (1 Ki 5:1).
• Furthermore, while the conditions of the Davidic Covenant were reiterated to Solomon (1 Ki 6:12), it is clear that he did not meet the conditions (1 Ki 11:9-13). That would not be done by any of the historical kings of the house of David until the coming of the Messiah (Is 9:6-7).

LITERARY FEATURES

From the ESV Study Bible:

First and Second Kings are written in the form of historical narrative—specifically, a record of monarchical succession. The main rhetorical format of this court history is the summary of individual kings’ careers, consisting of the name of each king, what kingdom he ruled (Israel or Judah), the date of his accession to the throne, the length of his reign, his religious and other policies, the details of his death, and the name of his successor. Yet the authors are as much theologians as historians. It is not their intention to provide every historical detail, and on occasion they direct readers who want more information to consult other sources. The authors’ main intention is to interpret the history of Israel along theological lines, showing what happens when political and spiritual leaders foolishly choose to worship false gods instead of wisely choosing to worship the one true God.

In terms of structure, 1 Kings focuses on Solomon and Elijah, occasionally breaking away from them to give an account of a relatively minor king. On the other hand, 2 Kings tends to primarily concern itself with the encyclopedic listing of more than 30 kings, with no individual given prominence with the exception of a detailed portrait of the life of Elisha.

It is also noteworthy to consider the sheer consistancy of the monarchial record. Each king is introduced with 1) his name and relation to his predecessor, 2) his date of accession in relationship to the year of the contemporary ruler in the other kingdom, 3) his age upon accession (for Judah only), 4) his length of reign, 5) his place of reign, 6) his mother’s name (for Judah only), and 7) a spiritual appraisal of his reign. Then comes a narration regarding the details of the reign, which varies widely. However, each reign is then concluded with 1) a citation of sources, 2) additional historical notes, 3) notice of death, 4) notice of burial, 5) the name of the successor, and 6) a postscript (although this varies).

It is this attention to detail that prevents significant objections to the reliability of the book of Kings (see below).

OBJECTIONS

Apart from the INTERPRETIVE CHALLENGES listed above, there are no significant OBJECTIONS to the book of Kings that I’m aware of.

NOTABLE QUOTABLES

• 1 Kings 2:1-2
• 1 Kings 3:9
• 1 Kings 18:37
• 2 Kings 2:11
• 2 Kings 17:20
• 2 Kings 25:21

DID YOU KNOW?

• The “Palace of the Forest of Lebanon” was named for the trunks of cedar trees which served as pillars, giving the appearance of a forest (1 Ki 7:2)…or many Brian Songs
• The “Sea of cast metal” was a enormous basin of water (holding about 11,500 gallons) that was used by the priests for ritual cleansing (1 Ki 7:23)
• ANE deities were thought of in somewhat similar terms to local law enforcement: they could only be worshiped (or hold sway) while on the soil to which it (or he or she) was bound (2 Ki 5:17)
• ANE makeup was rather sophisticated, and included eyeshadow, lipstick, and fingernail polish, as well as perfume (2 Ki 9:30)
• Isaiah (yes, that Isaiah) makes a rather significant cameo in 2 Kings 19

Other Works Referenced

• Apologetics Study Bible, “1 Kings Introduction” and “2 Kings Introduction”
• Archaeological Study Bible
• ESV Study Bible, “Introduction to 1 & 2 Kings”
• MacArthur Study Bible, “First Kings” and “Second Kings”
• NET Bible, 1 Kings and 2 Kings
• NIV Study Bible, “1 Kings” and “2 Kings”
• Reformation Study Bible, “The First Book of Kings” and “The Second Book of Kings”
• Know Your Bible
• Driscoll, A Book You’ll Actually Read On the Old Testament
• Knight, The Layman’s Bible Handbook

by Stephen Rodgers

1 & 2 SAMUEL IN 10 WORDS OR LESS

• 1 Samuel: “Israel’s twelve tribes unite under a king.”
• 2 Samuel: “David becomes Israel’s greatest king – but with major flaws.”

TITLE

In the early Hebrew manuscripts, 1 and 2 Samuel were considered a single book. They were divided into separate books by the translators of the Greek version, the Septuagint (LXX), which was later copied by the Latin Vulgate (Vg.), English translations, and modern Hebrew Bibles. The LXX designated 1 and 2 Samuel as “The First Book of the Kingdoms” (with our 1 and 2 Kings as “The Second Book of the Kingdoms), whereas the Vg. labeled them “First and Second Kings” (with our 1 and 2 Kings as “Third and Fourth Kings”).

In any event, the earliest Hebrew manuscripts entitled the book “Samuel” after the prophet God used to establish the kingship in Israel.

AUTHOR & AUDIENCE

Jewish tradition ascribes the authorship of the book of Samuel to Samuel himself, or to some combination of Samuel, Nathan, and Gad. Other scholars have also suggested Abiathar the priest.

While it is certainly possible (even likely) that the writing of 1 and 2 Samuel were based on manuscripts left by these prophets and priests, attributing authorship to them individually or collectively is problematic. Samuel was not alive during the events of David’s reign (2 Samuel), and Nathan/Gad were not alive during the events of 1 Samuel. Ultimately the author of these books is unknown.

In some form, the original audience would have been the Israelits who lived during the reigns of David and Solomon, as well as their successive generations.

DATE

The books of Samuel contain no clear indication as to the date of composition. However, there are some indicators that can be noted in passing:

• The author/editor wrote after the division of the kingdoms is 931 BC (1 Sa 11:8; 17:52; 18:16; 2 Sa 5:5; 11:11; 12:8; 19:42-43; 24:1,9).
• The statement concerning Ziklag’s belonging “to the kings of Judah to this day” (1 Sa 27:6) clearly indicated post-Solomonic composition.
• While this is helpful in marking an “earliest possible” date of composition, it is more difficult to locate a similar “latest possible” date. If the Former Prophets (see notes on the OT Canon) were composed as a unit, then Samuel would have been written during the Babylonian captivity,(ca. 560-540 BC) since 2 Kings concludes during the exile (2 Ki 25:27-30).
• However, even this cannot be determined with certainty since Samuel has a different literary style than Kings, which could indicate i t was penned prior to the Exile sometime during the period of the divided kingdom (ca. 971-722 BC).

BACKGROUND & SETTING

In terms of geography, the book of Samuel is situated around the central highlands of Israel, an area that encompasses approximately 2,000 square miles. (That’s actually a relatively small area, about 90 miles long and 15-35 miles wide. For a Southern Californian reference, you can think of it as the area between I-15 and the coast (east to west) between Anaheim and San Diego (north to south).

In terms of chronology, the book of Samuel begins with the birth of Samuel (1 Sa 1:1-28) and ends with the last words of David (2 Sa 23:1-7), approximately a 135 year period.

In terms of focus, the book of Samuel follows the lives of Samuel, Saul, and David.

HISTORICAL & THEOLOGICAL THEMES

While there are a number of themes throughout Samuel, there are three in particular that stand out:

• Kingship. A monarchy in Israel held both great hope and great danger. Ultimately, the contrasting kingships are not between Saul and David, but between the human and the divine. God is the sovereign King who makes no errors in judgment and retains His throne, unlike any earthly ruler.
• The consequences of sin. Both Saul and David serve as profound illustrations of the terrible consequences of sin. In particular, David’s status as a “man after God’s own heart” was not enough to protect him from the consequences of his sin, which had irreversible consequences despite his genuine repentance and God’s immediate forgiveness.
• The Davidic Covenant. The entire book of Samuel is bracketed by two references to the “anointed” king in the prayer of Hannah (1 Sa 2:10) and the song of David (2 Sa 22:51). These are references to the Messiah, who God promised would one day come through the line of David and establish David’s throne forever.

INTERPRETIVE CHALLENGES

Quite apart from the textual issues of Samuel (see OBJECTIONS) there are a number of issues that are raised within the text itself.  A few that are often mentioned are:

• Samuel’s attitude towards the establishment of human kingship. Some scholars have suggested that the author(s) of Samuel present an ambivalent or inconsistent view of the monarchy in Israel. For example, 1 Samuel 9-11 presents a positive view, while chapters 8 and 12 present a negative view. This is easily resolved by understanding that the author wished the reader to understand that the desire for a king was acceptable (Deut 17:15), the motivation was not.
• The behavior of the prophets. It has been suggested that the portrayals of the prophets in 1 Samuel 10:5 and 19:23-24 are consistent with other ANE prophets who exhibited ecstatic behavior. To put it mildly, this is an overstatement.
• The ministry of the Holy Spirit prior to Pentecost. The role of the Holy Spirit in the Old Testament is the subject of much discussion, but in general it can be understood as empowering for service rather than salvific in the New Testament sense.
• The identity of the “distressing spirit.” Two major interpretations of 1 Samuel 16:14 exist: either the spirit is impersonal (a spirit of discontent, see Judges (9:23), or it is personal (a demon). Opinions among commentators are divided, but the majority view seems to hold to the latter interpretation.
• The appearance of the “ghost” of Samuel. This passage in 1 Samuel 28 has sparked more heated debates among seminarians on internet messages boards than I can count. Suffice to say that two major interpretations exist: either the “ghost” is actually Samuel, or it is a demon impersonating Samuel. Despite the popularity of the subject matter, it ultimately is inconsequential, although the former interpretation is both simpler and would seem to present less difficulty.

LITERARY FEATURES

The genre of Samuel is first and foremost a hero story, focusing primarily on the three characters previously identified: Samuel, Saul, and David. Minor story arcs can be identified for Hannah, Eli, and Jonathan as well.

In particular, the stories of Saul and David are particularly set against each other, with the decline of Saul mirroring the ascension of David. In a similar way, the stories of Samuel and Eli foreshadow this greater construction, with the decline of Eli mirroring the ascension of Samuel.

Finally, while remaining within the genre of the hero story, the arc of Saul is the only fully developed and undisputed literary tragedy in the entire Bible. To a lesser extent, the arc of David reflects this.  While not a tragedy en toto, his arc does incorporate tragic elements in that his decline (although not his ultimate downfall, which would be a hallmark of a full-blown tragedy), can be traced to a single tragic decision.

OBJECTIONS

With the possible exception of Jeremiah, the book of Samuel has the dubious distinction of being the book of the Bible considered to have the most textual difficulties, variants, and possible transmission errors (in particular numerical discrepancies). There are numerous differences between the Masoretic text and the LXX, and it is likely that many of the spelling issues are a result of a scribe writing a name phonetically rather than in “standard” Hebrew.

The ESV Study Bible summarizes it this way:

The Hebrew Masoretic text (MT) of 1–2 Samuel is notorious for its difficulties. Furthermore, Samuel and Jeremiah are the two OT books where the ancient Greek translations and the Hebrew are notably different in many places. Many scholars and translations too readily reject the MT in favor of the Greek, saying that the Greek text makes more sense and reflects the more original Hebrew text. They hold that the MT must have been corrupted into its present form through a series of scribal errors, and they try to “correct” these “corrupted” texts on the basis of the Greek texts. In fact, the Hebrew texts of Samuel from about 50 to 25 b.c. found among the Dead Sea Scrolls give support for some readings in the Greek text tradition. But the alleged similarity between the Greek texts and the Dead Sea Scrolls has been overemphasized.

The book of Samuel can be summarized this way: when compared with other OT books, the issues related to textual transmission are numerous and surprisingly poor.  However, when compared with other ANE documents of the period, the issues related to textual transmission are surprisingly minimal. Serious students will note that while Samuel unquestionably has its issues, they cannot be said to be insurmountable. While the MT has been poorly preserved, and in some cases the exact reading of the original autograph cannot be determined, these issues are nonetheless identifiable.

NOTABLE QUOTABLES

• 1 Samuel 8:7
• I Samuel 15:22
• 1 Samuel 16:7
• 1 Samuel 17:45
• 2 Samuel 1:25
• 2 Samuel 7:18
• 2 Samuel 18:33

DID YOU KNOW?

• Opposing armies sometimes decided on a winner via a proxy battle between champions (as in David and Goliath). This was based on the belief that each champion represented their respective deity, who actually determined the outcome (1 Sa 17:4).
• Grasping the hem of a garment symbolized loyalty, but cutting off a piece of it symbolized disloyalty (1 Sa 24:4-5).
• New kings inherited the harem of the previous king (2 Sa 3:7)
• Disability was viewed as a sign of sin or God’s disfavor (2 Sa 4:4). (Note: Christ Himself later explicitly repudiated this view in John 9:3).

Other Works Referenced

• Apologetics Study Bible, “1 Samuel Introduction” and “2 Samuel Introduction”
• Archaeological Study Bible
• ESV Study Bible, “Introduction to 1 & 2 Samuel”
• MacArthur Study Bible, “First Samuel” and “2 Samuel”
• NET Bible, 1 Samuel and 2 Samuel
• NIV Study Bible, “1 Samuel” and “2 Samuel”
• Reformation Study Bible, “The First Book of Samuel” and “The Second Book of Samuel”
• Know Your Bible
• Driscoll, A Book You’ll Actually Read On the Old Testament
• Knight, The Layman’s Bible Handbook

by Stephen Rodgers

RUTH IN 10 WORDS OR LESS

“Loyal daughter-in-law pictures God’s faithfulness, love, and care.”

TITLE

The title of this book takes its name from Ruth the Moabitess heroine who is mentioned by name 12 times in the book itself. The name “Ruth” most likely comes from a Moabite and/or Hebrew word meaning “friendship.”

The 13th (and only other) time that Ruth is mentioned in the Bible is in Matthew 1:5…as an ancestor of Jesus Christ, the Messiah.

AUTHOR & AUDIENCE

The author of Ruth is unknown, although Jewish tradition ascribes it to Samuel (Baba Bathra 14b-15a). While that is certainly possible (after all, Samuel did not die until after he had anointed David as God’s chosen king) (1 Sam 16:6-13; 1 Sam 25:1), some scholars disagree since Samuel died before David actually became king, and Ruth 4:17-22 can be interpreted as implying that David’s kingship was already an established fact at the time of writing.

Generations of Israelites would have read Ruth to get a glimpse of what true faith looked like during a time of religious impiety and moral degeneracy.

DATE

Ruth takes place during the time of the Judges (Ruth 1:1), specifically sometimes around the judgeship of Jair (Judges 10:3-5) from circa 1126 BC to 1105 BC. However it was most likely written sometime after that.

For reasons mentioned above, the story most likely was written during the reign of David. Given the fact that Solomon isn’t mentioned, it most likely was written prior to his ascension to the throne, putting it somewhere between 1011 BC and 971 BC.

BACKGROUND & SETTING

Ruth begins in the town of Bethlehem (for those of you unfamiliar with the Bible, it will be significant later), transitions to Moab (located East across the Dead Sea), and then transitions back to the town of Bethlehem for the remainder of the story. The story from beginning to end unveils in four main scenes, over a total of 11-12 years:

1. Ruth 1:1-17 – Ten years in Moab
2. Ruth 1:19-2:23 – Several months in Boaz’s field
3. Ruth 3:1-18 – One day in Bethlehem and one night at the threshing floor
4. Ruth 4:1-22 – About one year in Bethlehem

HISTORICAL & THEOLOGICAL THEMES

Three themes consistently surface throughout Ruth:

1. Acceptance – Ruth shows that participation in the family of God is not based on nationality or ethnicity, but on faith and obedience.
2. Kindness and Faithfulness – The transformation of Naomi from an embittered woman (Ruth 1:20) to a joyful grandmother (Ruth 4:14-16) as a result of the loyalty and kindness of Ruth reflects the character and provision of God.
3. Redemption – Boaz’s redemption of the land, Ruth, and the family are all symbolic of Christ’s redemption of the church and his people.

INTERPRETIVE CHALLENGES

There are a number of issues that have been raised in regards to the propriety of events in the book of Ruth. Generally, these objections can be grouped into a racial category and a moral category.

In terms of her racial status as a Moabitess, much has been made of the fact that she would have been forbidden from entering the assembly of the LORD (Deut 23:3) or from even marrying an Israelite in the first place (Ex 34:16; Deut 7:1-3; Jos 23:12).  The former is partially true; the later is completely false.

• The command God gave forbade Moabites from entering the assembly of the LORD for “ten generations” can be understood literally or figuratively.  If taken literally, then it is likely that at least that many generations had passed in that time.  If taken figuratively (as Neh 13:1 implies) as a metaphor for “forever,” the problem can seem much more difficult.  In actuality however, either case would be undone by the fact that Ruth was a devout proselyte of Jehovah (Ruth 1:16-17) and therefore would be like the foreigner of Isaiah 56:1-8 who joined himself to the LORD.
• It is true that the Israelites were commanded not marry any of the people who possessed the Promised Land. However, the Moabites were not in the Promised Land (Deut 7:1). They were outside it.

In terms of moral objections, some fuss has been made over the fact that Boaz and Ruth spent the night together prior to their marriage (Ruth 3:3-18). What these objections fail to deal with is the fact that the uncovering of a man’s feet and laying down is a known ANE custom of requesting a marriage request (Ruth 3:1-4). The subsequent spreading of a cloak (Ruth 3:9) is symbolic of God’s covering Israel (Eze 16:8). The Bible doesn’t record even a hint of impropriety.

LITERARY FEATURES

There is a reason that Goethe reputedly commented on Ruth as “the loveliest, complete work on a small scale.” Simply put, Ruth is a masterpiece of literature.

The ESV Study Bible puts it this way:

In terms of compact storytelling, Ruth is a masterpiece of narrative art. It is densely packed, yet the charm of the book is evident even to the most unsophisticated reader. The book of Ruth is the classic love story of the Bible. Few stories in the Bible are told from a woman’s viewpoint, but in the story of Ruth, not only is a woman the protagonist but the world of the story is a woman’s world, and the writer gives attention to feminine values and feelings. Of course Boaz in his role as kinsman-redeemer cuts a striking figure as a man who embodies the Lord’s own kindness. The story exalts virtuous womanhood and strong manhood.

The overall genre is story or narrative, but several further subtypes converge as well. Ruth is a love story. It is also an idyll, i.e., a brief story describing a simple, pleasant aspect of rural and domestic life. As that definition suggests, Ruth has affinities with pastoral (rural) literature, and in this case the idealized rural world provides a setting for the idealized romance of the book: even though readers know from the first verse that the story is set in tumultuous times, these do not come into view. The story is also a hero story built around the life of an exemplary heroine as well as featuring an idealized male hero. Boaz is a rarity in the Bible, a character who gets a uniformly positive portrayal; most other characters reveal their flaws. But this reflects the literary function of Boaz as the embodiment of the Lord’s kindness.

The plot of the story of Ruth is a quest story in which the stated goal is to find Ruth a home (Ruth 1:9 and 3:1). The plot follows the conventional U-shape of literary “comedy,” with events first descending into potential tragedy and then rising to a happy ending as obstacles to fulfillment are gradually overcome.

OBJECTIONS

In a rather remarkable departure from the usual pattern of these articles, there are no significant objections to the reliability or validity of Ruth (at least, that I am aware of). It has occasionally been challenged as a legitimate historical account (primarily due to the fact that the author is unknown), but it’s complete compatibility with both Judges, 1 Samuel, and 2 Samuel, argue heavily for its authenticity.

Ruth is far more often challenged on the basis of internal issues, which are outlined above in the INTERPRETIVE CHALLENGES segment.

NOTABLE QUOTABLES

• Ruth 1:16

DID YOU KNOW?

• The land of a family or clan could not be sold permanently, only temporarily. (Ruth 4:1-3)
• While giving someone your sandal seems a strange way to conduct a legal arrangement (Ruth 4:7), there is historical evidence that other ANE societies had the same practice (see the Akkadian Nuzi documents).

Other Works Referenced

• Apologetics Study Bible, “Ruth Introduction”
• Archaeological Study Bible
• ESV Study Bible, “Introduction to Ruth”
• MacArthur Study Bible, “Ruth”
• NET Bible, Ruth
• NIV Study Bible, “Ruth”
• Reformation Study Bible, “The Book of Ruth”
• Know Your Bible
• Driscoll, A Book You’ll Actually Read On the Old Testament
• Knight, The Layman’s Bible Handbook

by Stephen Rodgers

JUDGES IN 10 WORDS OR LESS

“Israel goes through cycles of sin, suffering, and salvation.”

TITLE

The title of the book takes it’s name from the unique leaders that God provided for His people (Judges 2:16-19). The Hebrew word means “deliverers” or “saviors” (Deut 16:18; 17:9; 19:17).

The book of Judges recounts the stories of the first 12 of these judges. There are three more: Eli and Samuel (who came later), and God Himself (Judges 11:27).

AUTHOR & AUDIENCE

The author of Judges is unknown, although late Jewish tradition ascribes it to Samuel (Baba Bathra 14b-15a).

The audience would have been the generations of Israelites after the time of the Judges who needed to be reminded of their ancestor’s rebellion against God and their need for a divine leader and deliverer.

DATE

Pinning down the exact date that Judges was written can be a bit difficult, but best estimates would be that the majority of the text was written after 1043 BC (since the author refers to a time before a king, implying experience with a king in Judges 17:6, 18:1, and 21:25) but before 1004 BC when David captured Jerusalem (Judges 1:21).

Just to further muddy the waters, the conditions described in Judges 17-21 suggest a time after the Davidic dynasty had been established, leading some scholars to believe this is a later addition to the book as a whole. However, these allusions can be harmonized with a traditional time and date of authorship.

BACKGROUND & SETTING

John MacArthur aptly describes Judges as “the tragic sequel to Joshua.” Following the events in Joshua wherein the people of Israel obeyed God and were blessed, the events in Judges describe cyclical periods of time wherein they disobey God and are punished.  Eventually the people repent and cry out to the LORD, who sends them a Judge to deliver them from whatever enemy He has been using to punish them for their disobedience. Typically this involves civil or military deliverance, although in a few cases it involves spiritual deliverance as well.

This cycle repeats throughout the entire book with minor variations.

HISTORICAL & THEOLOGICAL THEMES

Three themes consistently surface throughout Judges:

1. God’s Faithfulness – Throughout the repeated cycles of disobedience/punishment/repentance/deliverance God is seen to consistently judge and forgive sin.
2. Compromise Brings Destruction – The disobedience of Israel is often predicated on compromising God’s commands and standards
3. The Need for Godly Leadership – The fragmenting of the Israelite authority structure and the failure of accepted leaders – parents (Judges 2:6-10), priests (Judges 17:1-13), and judges (Judges 8:27) – underscores the need for Godly leadership, which was fulfilled later in the form of Davidic kingship and ultimately in the kingship of Christ.

INTERPRETIVE CHALLENGES

Generally speaking, the challenges involved in reading the book of Judges have to do with the content of the book itself, most notably issues of violence, role models with questionable morals, illicit sexual activity, a degrading depiction of women, and a writing style that occasionally seems to include exaggeration or fabrication.

Somewhat ironically it is precisely because the book contains all of these elements that it is generally accepted to be a straightforward account of events rather than an embellished one.  Where the book an attempt to present a more “sanitized” version of history and events, then the author would not have included the embarrassing and shameful incidents that surprise and alarm even modern readers.

It should also be noted that while the author of Judges honestly records the sins, crimes, and foibles of its characters, the blame for that sin is never placed on God. Rather it is entirely clear that God is the innocent one, while the so-called “innocents” are truly guilty and deserving of judgment.

LITERARY FEATURES

The ESV Study Bible again offers an excellent analysis, so I will simply quote it at length:

The format of Judges is a collection of individual “hero stories;” together, they tell the history of Israel during a specific era. Like Genesis, Judges pictures a mixture of good and bad behavior: the judges are not idealized, nor is their portrait uniformly negative. Mingled with the hero stories are brief units of historical facts about judges whose stories are not told in detail. The famous Song of Deborah (Judges 5) is poetry, while the story of Samson (Judges 13–16) meets the usual criteria of literary tragedy.

The pattern introduced in Judges 2:11–23 shapes the plot: (1) the Israelites do what is evil in the sight of God; (2) God allows the nation to be conquered and oppressed by a neighboring nation; (3) the people cry to God; and (4) God sends a judge to deliver them (see chart). Then the cycle repeats itself. In addition to this cycle, the book is structured on the premise of a double plot. The overall story is one of national descent into lawlessness and apostasy; but within this national narrative lies a collection of stories that celebrate the heroic exploits of judges. Even though they had severe flaws, four of these judges are mentioned among the heroes of the faith (Hebrews 11).

OBJECTIONS

Objections to Judges were dealt with largely in the INTERPRETIVE CHALLENGES section above.

However, it should be noted that one point of discussion is reconciling the chronology of the time between the Exodus and Solomon’s fourth year, which the Bible records as 480 years (1 Kings 6:1). If one reads Judges as a purely sequential chain of events, then arriving at this number is difficult. The probable solution is that Judges does not portray a strict chronology, but rather that some periods recorded in the book were actually concurrent with other periods in the book. This would mean that Paul’s estimate of “about 450 years” in Acts 13:19 was just an approximation, as the language would seem to imply.

Some object that this solution relies on a forced reading of the text, but quite frankly Judges appears to be thematically organized rather than chronologically organized anyways. The sequence of events in the book focuses on geographical regions that are tied to tribal inheritances: southern (Judges 3:7-31), northern (Judges 4:1-5:31), central (Judges 6:1-10:5), eastern (Judges 10:6-12:15), and western (Judges 13:1-16:31), which simply isn’t consistent with a strict chronology.

NOTABLE QUOTABLES

• Judges 2:16
• Judges 7:2
• Judges 21:25

DID YOU KNOW?

• A number of references to family size in Judges would seem to indicate the practice of polygamy (Judges 10:4; 12:14; 12:9). However, polygamy as a practice has never met with God’s approval (see articles here and here).

Other Works Referenced

• Apologetics Study Bible, “Judges Introduction”
• Archaeological Study Bible
• ESV Study Bible, “Introduction to Judges”
• MacArthur Study Bible, “Judges”
• NET Bible, Judges
• NIV Study Bible, “Judges”
• Reformation Study Bible, “The Book of Judges”
• Know Your Bible
• Driscoll, A Book You’ll Actually Read On the Old Testament
• Knight, The Layman’s Bible Handbook

by Stephen Rodgers

JOSHUA IN 10 WORDS OR LESS

“The Israelites capture and settle the promised land of Canaan.”

TITLE

The title of the book takes it’s name from the central character and successor of Moses, who was commissioned as a leader in Israel (Num 27:12-23). The name “Joshua” means “Jehovah saves” or “the LORD is salvation” and corresponds to the NT name “Jesus.”

AUTHOR & AUDIENCE

The author of Joshua is not named, although the likely primary author is Joshua himself (Jos 18:9; 24:26). The Talmud ascribe authorship to Joshua as well (Baba Bathra 15a), with the exception of the account of Joshua’s death (Jos 24:29-33). As mentioned in the introduction to the Historical Books, it is considered likely that the final form of the historical books (including Joshua) were edited/compiled from earlier primary documents.

Regardless, the original audience would primarily have been Israelites born after the conquest of Canaan.  This book would have served as a record for how they came to be in the land.

DATE

For reasons described above, dating the book can be somewhat problematic, although based on the life of Joshua it is probable that much of it was written between 1405 BC and 1385 BC. Other clues include the fact that Rahab was alive at the time that Joshua 6:25 was written, the fact that Sidon (not Tyre) was Phoenicia’s leading city (Jos 11:8; 19:28), the repeated refrain “to this day” indicates the passage of time between the events described and the book’s final form (Jos 4:9; 5:9; 6:25), a reference to what may be an alternate or earlier record of Joshua’s accomplishments (Jos 10:13), and the fact that Jerusalem had not yet been conquered (Jos 15:63).

BACKGROUND & SETTING

The book of Joshua begins with Israel poised to invade Canaan when Joshua himself is 90 years old.  This displacement served two purposes: the fulfillment of God’s promise to Abraham (Gen 12:7; 15:18-21) and judgment on the inhabitants of Canaan.

The book traces the next 20 years, detailing the various battles and incidents involved, until his death at the age of 110 after his successful military campaign.

HISTORICAL & THEOLOGICAL THEMES

Two themes are prevalent in the book of Joshua: 1) God the great warrior, and 2) God’s faithfulness.

• Throughout the first half of the book of Joshua, it is clearly God who determines the outcome of battles, defeats the Canaanites, and rescues His people from their enemies. Continuing the theme of Deuteronomy, when Israel is obedient, they fare well on the battlefield; when they are disobedient, they are punished until they repent.
• Throughout the second half of the book of Joshua, God is repeatedly shown to be faithful in keeping His promises (Jos 21:45; 23:14). As previously mentioned, these promises were made centuries earlier to Abraham, illustrating God’s role as promise-keeper, and pointing the modern reader to the promises we have in Christ (2 Cor 1:20; 2 Pet 1:4).

INTERPRETIVE CHALLENGES

As a historical book, most historical challenges are more properly categorized as OBJECTIONS (see below) rather than hermeneutical issues.

However, a small number of questions have repeatedly been asked, the most famous of them centering around the issue of how God’s blessing on Rahab relates to her telling a lie (Jos 2). The issue stems from the fact that the 9th Commandment (Ex 20:16), God’s character (Tit 1:2; Heb 6:17-18; Num 23:19; etc.), and Scripture (Ps 31:18; Prov 6:17; Eph 4:25; etc.) all clearly repudiate the act of lying.  However, in this particular context, Rahab’s lie is not addressed, and in fact, God seems to actually commend her for it. This same issue is illustrated elsewhere in Scripture (see Frame’s article, below), as well as throughout history (Athanasius’ encounter with the soldiers of Julian the Apostate, those who concealed Jews from the Nazis, etc.).

Even among theologians, opinions as to how to reconcile this vary (actually, even within a given theological tradition, opinions vary; consider Calvin’s commentary on Joshua versus Hodge’s treatment of the 9th Commandment in Volume III of his Systematic Theology). Suffice to say that a thorough treatment of the subject goes well beyond the scope of this article, but for a very brief introduction to the topic, I would refer the reader to the ESV Study Bible’s Biblical Ethics: An Overview (beginning in the section entitled “Lying and Telling the Truth”) and John Frame’s brief treatment of the subject in “Must We Always Tell the Truth?” for a different view.

A second question that has achieved significant popularity in recent years pertains to the conquest of Canaan, whether or not it could be properly understood as genocide, and whether it can be justified. Suffice to say that this also is an issue that causes considerable debate among theologians. While nearly all theologians agree that inflammatory terms like “genocide” or “ethnic cleansing” are not only unwarranted but false by definition in this case (for example, one cannot condemn the Israelites for “utterly wiping out” the Canaanites based on the account in Joshua while simultaneously ignoring the fact that the same account notes they failed to do so), they make their case in different ways. Some argue primarily from God’s sovereign rights (see the ESVSB’s Introduction to Joshua, “The Destruction of the Canaanites”), others argue primarily for understanding the text within the specific ANE context (see Matt Flannagan’s “God and the Genocide of the Canaanites, Part I, Part II, Part III“), and some argue for both (see Paul Copan’s “How Could God Command Killing the Canaanites?” and “Yahweh Wars and the Canaanites”).

Once again, the reader is advised to pursue further readings on their own if the subject interests them.

LITERARY FEATURES

The ESV Study Bible has a succinct description of Joshua as literature:

In the Hebrew canon, the book of Joshua is included (along with Judges, 1–2 Samuel, and 1–2 Kings) in the “Former Prophets.” In English Bibles, these same books are often called the “Historical Books.” Both designations are apt. The book of Joshua qualifies as historiography (history writing), but it is not like the ostensibly disinterested, largely political histories that modern secular historians write. It is, rather, a didactic history written from a prophetic (that is, theological) point of view.

OBJECTIONS

Generally speaking, the only notable objections to the book of Joshua center around the possibility of the three recorded miracles: 1) the stopping of the Jordan River (Jos 3:15-17), 2) the collapse of Jericho’s walls (Jos 6:20), and 3) the sun standing still (Jos 10:12-14). However, it should be noted that anti-supernaturalism is a philosophical assumption, and while it may render miracles untenable to the reader, it is not a demonstrably scientific or historical fact. As a result of these presuppositions, some historians have posited four alternate view on the conquest of Canaan: 1) a conquest model, 2) a peaceful infiltration model, 3) a peasant revolt model, and 4) an endogenous model.  While the first model comes closest to the Biblical account, all three models contradict what Scripture says, and can account for the Biblical data.  They simply reflect an anti-supernatural bias.

NOTABLE QUOTABLES

• Joshua 1:9
• Joshua 24:15

DID YOU KNOW?

• Joshua wasn’t always named “Joshua.”  His original name was Hoshea (Num 13:8), but Moses renamed him (Num 13:16).
• While Einstein famously commented that “God does not play dice with the universe,” the book of Joshua teaches us that “God does not play dice with dice.” (Jos 14:1-5)
• While there is some dispute over the exact meaning of the text, in all liklihood, Caleb wasn’t ethnically an Israelite (Jos 14:6).

Other Works Referenced

• Apologetics Study Bible, “Joshua Introduction”
• Archaeological Study Bible
• ESV Study Bible, “Introduction to Joshua”
• MacArthur Study Bible, “Joshua”
• NET Bible, Joshua
• NIV Study Bible, “Joshua”
• Reformation Study Bible, “The Book of Joshua”
• Know Your Bible
• Driscoll, A Book You’ll Actually Read On the Old Testament
• Knight, The Layman’s Bible Handbook

by Stephen Rodgers

Comparative Outlines of the Historical Books

Having briefly dealt with the “five books of Moses,” we now turn our attention to the second major section of the OT: the historical books. We just finished going over the Pentateuch, which was the first section, and are now moving on to the next section. Remember, the OT (as it appears in the Protestant Bible) can be broken down into four sections:

1. Law (Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy)
2. History (Joshua, Judges, Ruth, 1 & 2 Samuel, 1 & 2 Kings, 1 & 2 Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah, Esther)
3. Wisdom (Job, Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs)
4. Prophecy (Isaiah, Jeremiah, Lamentations, Ezekiel, Daniel, Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi)

The 12 historical books were written over a period of approximately 1,000 years, and trace the history of Israel from the invasion of Canaan, through the divided kingdoms of Israel and Judah, the fall of the two kingdoms to Assyria and Babylonia, and the restoration of Judah from exile in the sixth century BC.

AUTHOR & COMPOSITION

Unlike the Pentateuch, the historical books do not have a single author. Rather, as we can see from their content (and from their structure in the Jewish canon) that each book was written at a particular time in Israel’s history, although theories vary as to exactly how the books should be grouped thematically, and to what degree they were editorially shaped after their initial composition.  For example, one theory holds that Joshua, Judges, Samuel, and Kings form a group of writings known as “Deuteronomistic History” that were completed during the Babylonian exile (albeit begun much earlier), whereas Chronicles, Ezra, and Nehemiah form a second group of writings completed during Judah’s return from exile.

Ultimately it is important to ask the question why a particular scholar (or group of scholars) is advancing a specific textual theory. Two scholars may advance similar theories in regards to the compositional elements of a particular text or set of texts, but their reasons for doing so will be radically different if one approaches their study with the presupposition that the Bible is the word of God, and the other approaches their study with the presupposition that there is no God and the Bible is no different from other ANE holy books.

It should be recognized however that while these writings are clearly a serious attempt to write an accurate history of Israel and Judah using the conventions of ANE historiography, these books are not merely historical; they are also theological. Ultimately, this is not a story about Israel from the perspective of the historian, but rather they are ultimately written from the perspective of God as they record His repeated interaction with His people through miracles, revelation, and providence.

THEMES

The ESV Study Bible highlights five major themes of the historical books:

1. God’s Sovereignty – God is portrayed and presented in the historical books as sovereign over all creation, both in terms of both specific inbreakings (miracles) and a  more macroscopic view of history (first the nation of Israel, but also over Assyria, Babylonia, and Persia).  In fact, it is precisely his sovereign care for Israel and their place in history that form the backdrop for this section of Scripture.
2. God’s Presence – God is portrayed both as near and far throughout the historical books. In many cases He is shown directly intervening in events via miracles, prophets, and even the monarchy.  At other times His presence is missing, either as a result of Israel’s sin (Judges 2; 1 Sam 4:19-22; etc.) or simply due to reasons known only to Him.  In either case, the presence of God (or lack thereof) is noteworthy within the narrative.
3. God’s Promises – The historical books quite clearly were written on the foundation of the promises and covenants of the Pentateuch.  Furthermore the historical books overall can only be understood in the context of the Abrahamic covenant in which God swore to Abraham that he would receive the land of Canaan (Gen 12:7; 17:18-21), many descendants (Gen 12:2; 15:5) , and blessings on him, and through him, on all nations (Gen 12:1-3).
4. God’s Kingdom – Just as the Bible teaches that God is king over all the earth (Ex 15:18; Ps 93:1), He also chose to exercise his rule through human kings from the line of Abraham (Gen 17:6, 16; 35:11; 49:10). He prescribed that Israel’s kings should not be like the kings of other nations, but were instead to be rooted in God’s Word and allow Him to fight their battles for them (Deut 17:14-20; Judg 8:22-23; 1 Sam 8:5, 20). While some kings followed this mandate and others (to their destruction) did not, the common theme is that God is the ultimate King of Israel. The Davidic kings were “sons of God” (2 Sam 7:11-16), and this theme carries into the NT where the ultimate Son of God was also of the line of David (Matt 1:1; Rom 1:3) and His ministry ushers in a new present kingdom while also pointing to a future one as well.
5. God’s Covenant – The theme of the previously mentioned “Deuteronomistic History” books could be summed up in the statement “Sin brings punishment;  repentance brings restoration,” which echoes one of the great themes of Deuteronomy. Throughout the historical books a pattern emerges: reward follows obedience, whereas punishment follows disobedience. This is seen in the nation as a whole, their representative kings, and even specific individuals (1 Chron 10:13; 2 Chron 26:16-23).

GENRE

The historical books are predominantly narrative, although they also contain portions of other genres such as poetry, genealogies, lists, letters, etc.

It should be noted that the historical books do not mythologize their miracle accounts; rather they present miracles as accounts of real events in the same manner that they record other, more everyday events.  Despite the fact that secular scholars question the historical reliability of the miracle passages, from a literary standpoint there is no reason to separate them from the text, or consider them to be later additions.

Other Works Referenced:

• ESV Study Bible, “Introduction to the Historical Books”
• Reformation Study Bible, “Introduction to the Historical Books”
• Driscoll, A Book You’ll Actually Read On The Old Testament
• Knight, The Layman’s Bible Handbook