by Stephen Rodgers

DEUTERONOMY IN 10 WORDS OR LESS

“Moses reminds the Israelites of their history and God’s laws.”

TITLE

The English title “Deuteronomy” comes from the Greek word (Deuteronomium) meaning “this second law,” (which was actually a mistranslation of “copy of this law” referring to Deut 17:18) whereas the Hebrew title is derived from the books’s first two words (Eleh ha-devarim), translated “These are the words.” (Deut 1:1)

As previously mentioned, it is sometimes referred to as the “Fifth Book of Moses.”

AUTHOR & AUDIENCE

Both Jewish and Christian traditions attribute the five books of the Pentateuch primarily to Moses. Like Numbers, Deuteronomy makes explicit claims regarding Mosaic authorship (Deut 1:1,5; 4:44; 31:9,22,24; 33:4).  Both the OT (1Ki 2:3; 8:53; 2Ki 14:6; 18:12) and the NT (Ac 3:22-23; Ro 10:19) specifically support the claim of Mosaic authorship as well.

Furthermore, both the OT (Num 33:2; Jos 8:31; Ezr 6:18; Neh 13:1; Dan 9:11,13; Mal 4:4) and the NT (Matt 8:4;Mk 12:26; Lk 16:29; 24:27, 44; Jn 5:46; 7:22; Ac 15:1; 1Co 9:9; 2Co 3:15) credit Moses as the author of the Pentateuch.

For more information, see the “Author and Composition” section of the Pentateuch article.

The original audience were the generation of Israelites who would soon enter Canaan. Since the generation who lived through the events of the Exodus and the subsequent giving of the Law had died off (with the exception of Caleb and Joshua), they were in need of a “refresher course.”

DATE

Depending on whether one subscribes to an early (ca. 1,446 BC) or late (ca. 1,260 BC) date of the Exodus would determine the time during which Deuteronomy was written (after the Exodus but prior to Moses’ death). (It should be noted that while good arguments have been put forth in favor of both dates, the majority of scholars surveyed for this series tended to favor an early date).

Given the internal dates supplied in Deuteronomy, we also know that Deuteronomy (like Numbers) was written during the final year of Moses’ life.

BACKGROUND & SETTING

Like Leviticus, Deuteronomy does not advance historically but takes place in one location over about one month of time (compare Deut 1:3 and 34:8 with Jos 5:6-12). As previously mentioned, this book details the giving of the law to the generation of Israelites born after the Exodus.  It also details the commissioning of Joshua as the new leader (Deut 31:1-29), Moses viewing (but not entering!) of the Promised Land (Deut 32:48-52; 34:1-4), and the death of Moses (Deut 34:5-12).

HISTORICAL & THEOLOGICAL THEMES

In broad terms, Deuteronomy deals with three themes: 1) Covenant, 2) Choices, and 3) God Himself.

1. God’s unmerited love (Deut 7:6-9) is the basis of not only the covenant by also of His people’s trust in Him.
2. The covenant exhorted God’s people to teach, remember, and obey (Deut 6:6-25). God promised that obedience would bring blessing (Deut 28:1-14) but warned that disobedience would result in harm (Deut 28:15-68). (On a related note, this forms the basis for John Frame’s excellent treatment of Christian ethics).
3. On the subject of God, Deuteronomy reveals that the LORD is the only God (Deut 4:39; 6:4), jealous (Deut 4:24), faithful (Deut 7:9), loving (Deut 7:13), merciful (Deut 4:31), yet angered by sin (Deut 6:15).

LITERARY FEATURES

Like the previous books of the Pentateuch, Deuteronomy mingles narrative with law.  However, whereas the formula of Exodus, Leviticus, and Numbers is “the LORD spoke to Moses,” the rhetorical stance of Deuteronomy is that Moses speaks to the people.  The effect is an extended exhortation  to covenant faithfulness.

Some have noted that there as similarities between Deuteronomy and ANE suzerainty treaties.  The ESV SB explains: “In a suzerainty treaty, a king or suzerain rehearsed what he had done for his nation and stipulated what he required in response. There is also an incipient note of anticipation, as it is understood that the instructions are given to a people on the verge of setting up a utopia—a good society governed by identifiable institutions and practices—in a promised land.”

For further reference, the ESV Study Bible has a helpful chart:

It should be noted that similarities between the structure of Deuteronomy and other ANE Hittite manuscripts serves to bolster the claim that Deuteronomy is a Late Bronze Age document and not a more recent compilation.

INTERPRETIVE CHALLENGES

Deuteronomy presents relatively few interpretive challenges.  Two minor challenges that sometimes are referred to are 1) whether Deuteronomy can be properly understood as a document structured as a suzerainty treaty (see LITERARY FEATURES above), and 2) the identity of the covenant made in the land of Moab (Deut 29:1).  The former is an issue of some scholarly interest, but no real consensus has been reached, and the implications either way are not very noteworthy.  In regards to the later issue, the majority opinion is that this was a renewal of the Sinaitic Covenant, although other views (the Palestinian Covenant view, the New Covenant view) exist as well.

OBJECTIONS

Most of the objections related to Deuteronomy center around a number of alleged anachronisms (something that occurs outside of its proper time).  These so-called discrepancies are really no trouble at all, so we will deal with them briefly:

• Deuteronomy 1:1 could be interpreted to mean that Moses and Israel already crossed the Jordon (which contradicts the text).  However the term (be’er hayyardern) is ambiguous, and could just as easily indicated that they were east of the Jordan, not west.
• Deuteronomy 2:12 seems to indicate a post-conquest frame of reference, until one considers that it was obviously written after the events described in Deuteronomy 2:26-3:11, which record a conflict with the same tribe.
• Last but not least, there is the famous case of the death of Moses in Deuteronomy 34:5-12. Skeptics claim that Moses could not possibly have written an account of his own death and burial.  However, it is possible that 1) he was prophetically inspired to do so, or (more likely) 2) that portion of the book was written by someone else, most likely Joshua (which is in keeping with Jewish tradition; see Baba Bathra 14b-15a). It should be noted that the appending of words from a subsequent book to the preceding one was a common practice in antiquity to ensure proper sequencing (see Joshua/Judges and Chronicles/Ezra), and are generally not considered by scholars to negate general authorship.

NOTABLE QUOTABLES

• Deuteronomy 6:4
• Deuteronomy 6:5
• Deuteronomy 6:15

DID YOU KNOW?

•  The 10 Commandments from Exodus 20 are restated in Deuteronomy 5.
• The Law of the Pentateuch often is maligned as being harsh and oppressive.  This fails to account for the fact that unlike many other ANE legal systems, God specifically designated special protections for widows, orphans, resident foreigners, the disabled, and the elderly (Deut 5:14; 14:29; 15:7-11;16:11,14; 24:10-21;26:12-13; 27:19).
• Deuteronomy is the 3rd most-quoted OT book in the NT (behind Psalms and Isaiah).

Other Works Referenced

• Apologetics Study Bible, “Deuteronomy Introduction”
• Archaeological Study Bible
• ESV Study Bible, “Introduction to Deuteronomy”
• MacArthur Study Bible, “Deuteronomy”
• NET Bible, Deuteronomy
• NIV Study Bible, “Deuteronomy”
• Reformation Study Bible, “The Fifth Book of Moses Called Deuteronomy”
• Know Your Bible
• Driscoll, A Book You’ll Actually Read On the Old Testament
• Knight, The Layman’s Bible Handbook

by Stephen Rodgers

NUMBERS IN 10 WORDS OR LESS

“Faithless Israelites wander forty years in the wilderness of Sinai.”

TITLE

The English title “Numbers” comes from the Greek word (Arithmoi) meaning “numbers,” (referring to the census and numberings of chapters 1-4 and 26) whereas the Hebrew title is derived from the books’s very first word (bemidbar), translated “in the wilderness.” (Num 1:1)

As previously mentioned, it is sometimes referred to as the “Fourth Book of Moses.”

AUTHOR & AUDIENCE

Both Jewish and Christian traditions attribute the five books of the Pentateuch primarily to Moses. Like Leviticus, Numbers makes explicit claims regarding Mosaic authorship (Num 33:2; 36:13).

Furthermore, both the OT (Num 33:2; Jos 8:31; 1Ki 2:3; 2Ki 14:6; Ezr 6:18; Neh 13:1; Dan 9:11,13; Mal 4:4) and the NT (Matt 8:4;Mk 12:26; Lk 16:29; 24:27, 44; Jn 5:46; 7:22; Ac 15:1; Ro 10:19; 1Co 9:9; 2Co 3:15) credit Moses as the author of the Pentateuch.

For more information, see the “Author and Composition” section of the Pentateuch article.

The original audience were the Israelites who survived the desert wanderings, and their descendants. Later generations would read it to remind themselves of God’s faithfulness to His people.

DATE

Depending on whether one subscribes to an early (ca. 1,446 BC) or late (ca. 1,260 BC) date of the Exodus would determine the time during which Numbers was written (after the Exodus but prior to Moses’ death). (It should be noted that while good arguments have been put forth in favor of both dates, the majority of scholars surveyed for this series tended to favor an early date).

Given the internal dates supplied in Numbers, we also know that Numbers was written during the final year of Moses’ life.

BACKGROUND & SETTING

Most of the events of the book of Numbers are set “in the wilderness” as the name suggests. Because of their sin, complaining, and lack of trust in the LORD, God condemns them to wander in the desert until the present generation dies off. Numbers 1:1-14:45 records events that took place the year following the Exodus; Numbers 20:1 and following takes place 37-38 years later.  Numbers 15:1-19:22 are undated, but probably took place in the intervening time period. The lack of material associate with this period (compared with the other years of the journey from Egypt to Canaan) communicates how utterly wasted these years were because of Israel’s rebellion.

HISTORICAL & THEOLOGICAL THEMES

In broad terms, Numbers deals with three themes: 1) God’s mercy and faithfulness, 2) God’s justice, and 3) Hope.

1. We continually see God guiding (Num 9:17) and comforting His people as He offers them forgiveness and reconciliation.  Their rebellions and unfaithfulness are contrasted with His ever faithful love for His own (Num 14:18).
2. Complaining (Num 11:1-12:16; 21:1-22:1) and rebellion (at both Kadesh and Peor) are followed by judgment and punishment.
3. Although followed by judgment and punishment, rebellions are also followed by repentance and renewed hope and obedience.  Ultimately, God does not leave His people to wander in the desert, but remembers His promise and brings them to the border of the Promised Land.  Despite their disobedience, His plan and will cannot be thwarted.

LITERARY FEATURES

Numbers as a book falls into the overall genre of historical chronicle.  However, the specific structure of the book is divided into sections of narrative interspersed with sections of laws and regulations.  Such sections should not be viewed as an interuption to the story, but rather seen as expressing religious truths in a visual form.  Remember that as a theocracy, one cannot entirely separate religious ritual and practice from political governance.  In that way, even those rituals serve to further illustrate the narrative portions as complementary material.

INTERPRETIVE CHALLENGES

There are a number of challenges that are presented by the book of Numbers.  The most often cited include 1) whether Numbers is coherent as a part of the Pentateuch, 2) whether Numbers is coherent in and of itself, 2) mathematical issues posed by the reported number of fighting men in Israel, and 3) how to responsibly handle the passages that relate to the false prophet Balaam.

1. I have already briefly addressed the issue that the Pentateuch should be considered a single collection of work by a singular author (admittedly with minor revisions and glosses that are widely recognized) rather than a collection of writings compiled at a later date.  While Numbers can seem like something of a deparature from the other books of Moses, it should be noted that the author assumes the events (and knowledge of the events) described in Genesis, Exodus, and Leviticus.  There is no additional explanation of the LORD, Moses, the Law, the tabernacle, or the Exodus from Egypt. (Furthermore, see the chart in the ESV Study Bible labelled “Parallels between Exodus and Numbers” for additional similarities and ties).
2. Some scholars have suggested that Numbers is not a coherrant work.  However, an examination of the book itself clearly shows that the 1st generation of Israel (Num 1:1-25:18) is contrasted with the 2nd generation of Israel (Num 26:1-36:13). Furthermore, as previously mentioned, the book has a distinct beginning, middle, and end from a chronological point of view.
3. I will address this in greater detail in the OBJECTIONS section below.
4. Numbers 22:2-24:25 records the rather strange tale of the heathen prophet Balaam.  On an initial reading, Balaam can be a confusing figure, particularly because while he claims to know the LORD (Num 22:18) and even communicates with Him (Num 22:20), God is later shown to be angry with him for going on the very trip that He seemingly gave Balaam permission to take (along the way, there’s a talking donkey, but that’s another issue)!  Balaam then goes on to deliver a true prophecy given to him by God himself…only to have Scripture identify him repeatedly as a false prophet (Deut 23:3-6; Jos 13:22; 24:9,10; Neh 13:1-3; Mic 6:5; 2 Pet 2:15,16; Jude 11: Rev 2:14).  Meinolf Mellwig once described this as an occasion where “you’re not sure how you’re supposed to feel about someone until you read later in the Bible.”  For now, suffice to say that Balaam was a false prophet who the LORD used to speak true words.

OBJECTIONS

The ESV Study Bible (“The Large Numbers in the Pentateuch”) does an excellent job of treating this subject, but I want to briefly sketch an outline for you in support of a literal reading of the numbers.

When taken literally the numbers of the Israelite militia total 603,550 in the first census and 601,730 in the second census, which would seem to imply a total population of 2 to 3 million. Critical scholars have challenged this interpretation by pointing out a number of alleged external and internal problems.

External problems include the inability of the Sinai region to support that many people (explained by God’s miraculous provision), and the lack of archaelogical evidence that such a group ever occupied the region (explained by the fact that such ANE nomadic cultures typically left little to no trace to begin with).

Internal problems include the issue of the firstborn and the problem of small subsequent armies, which I will describe in more detail below:

• Given that Numbers 1:46 and 2:32 would seem to indicate a total male population of approximately 1 million,  and that Numbers 3:43 tells us there were 22,273 firstborn, initial calculations might lead us to believe that the average family contained…40-50 males.  That seems odd.  A more likely explanation (that still is in keeping with the text) is that the firstborn males are those who were born after the Exodus but before the census.  Assuming a likely demographic breakdown of the 603,550 males (in terms of age) along with a plausible marriage rate would account for that number without issue.
• The problem of small subsequent armies deals with the issue that despite this enormous number of troops, later records indicate smaller numbers of soldiers: 40,000 (Jos 4:13; Jdg 5:8), and 30,000 (Jos 8:3). Such discrepancies can be explained by the fact that in some cases Scripture records that their  commanders were unpopular (Jdg 4:8), that forces were kept in reserve for guard duty and defensive actions, and/or that commanders only deployed  as many men as they deemed as necessary to accomplish their objectives.

NOTABLE QUOTABLES

• Numbers 14:18
• Numbers 23:23

DID YOU KNOW?

• A mysterious punctuation mark called an “inverted nun” appears only in Numbers and in Psalms.  It’s precise meaning is unclear.

Other Works Referenced

• Apologetics Study Bible, “Numbers Introduction”
• Archaeological Study Bible
• ESV Study Bible, “Introduction to Numbers”
• MacArthur Study Bible, “Numbers”
• NET Bible, Numbers
• NIV Study Bible, “Numbers”
• Reformation Study Bible, “The Fourth Book of Moses Called Numbers”
• Know Your Bible
• Driscoll, A Book You’ll Actually Read On the Old Testament
• Knight, The Layman’s Bible Handbook

by Stephen Rodgers

LEVITICUS IN 10 WORDS OR LESS

“A holy God explains how to worship Him.”

TITLE

The English title “Leviticus” comes from the Greek word (Leuitikon) meaning “about the Levites,” whereas the Hebrew title is derived from the books’s very first word (wayyiqra’), translated “And He called.” (Lev 1:1)

As previously mentioned, it is sometimes referred to as the “Third Book of Moses.”

AUTHOR & AUDIENCE

Both Jewish and Christian traditions attribute the five books of the Pentateuch primarily to Moses.  Like Exodus, Leviticus makes explicit claims regarding Mosaic authorship (Lev 1:1;4:1; 6:1; 7:38; 25:1; 26:46; 27:34) as does the New Testament (Rom 10:5).

Furthermore, both the OT (Num 33:2; Jos 8:31; 1Ki 2:3; 2Ki 14:6; Ezr 6:18; Neh 13:1; Dan 9:11,13; Mal 4:4) and the NT (Matt 8:4;Mk 12:26; Lk 16:29; 24:27, 44; Jn 5:46; 7:22; Ac 15:1; Ro 10:19; 1Co 9:9; 2Co 3:15) credit Moses as the author of the Pentateuch.

For more information, see the “Author and Composition” section of the Pentateuch article.

The original audience were the post-Exodus Israelites, in particular the Levites (although the material in the book deals with the laity as well). Later generations of Israelites would have studied the book to learn God’s laws for worship and sacrificial practices.

DATE

Depending on whether one subscribes to an early (ca. 1,446 BC) or late (ca. 1,260 BC) date of the Exodus would determine the time during which Leviticus was written (after the Exodus but prior to Moses’ death). (It should be noted that while good arguments have been put forth in favor of both dates, the majority of scholars surveyed for this series tended to favor an early date).

BACKGROUND & SETTING

Let me begin by pointing out that Leviticus picks up almost exactly where Exodus left off.  However, whereas Exodus primarily concerns itself with the revelation of the moral law, Leviticus focuses more on the revelation of the ceremonial law.

Prior to Mt. Sinai, a number of events had never previously occurred: the presence of God’s glory had never formally resided among the Israelites, a central place of worship had never existed, a structured and regulated system of worship had not been given, and a formal priesthood had not been appointed to function in conjunction with that system of worship.

Up to this point, Israel had only the example of the patriarchs from which to derive their knowledge of how to worship and live before their God.  Coming off centuries of slavery in Egypt however, even these examples were apparently influenced by polytheism and pagan ritual (as evidenced by the golden calf incident in Ex 32).

Unlike the previous two books, no geographical movement occurs in this book.  The people of Israel are encamped at the foot of Mt. Sinai at the beginning of the book of Leviticus, and they are still there one month later when the book of Numbers begins.

HISTORICAL & THEOLOGICAL THEMES

In broad terms, Leviticus deals with three themes: 1) Holiness, 2) Sin/Sacrifice/Atonement, and 3) Worship.  Let’s examine each in some greater detail.

• Holiness: the core theme of Leviticus is holiness, both the holy character of God and the will of God for Israel’s holiness.  God’s holiness is seen as the necessary pre-condition to make the mandate of personal holiness intelligible.  The motive for such holiness is seen in two repeated phrases, “I am the LORD” and “I am holy,” which are used more than 50 times.
• Sin/Sacrifice/Atonement: Since no human is perfect, God provided the sacrificial system as a means of atonement for sins against Him and His law. This is in direct contrast with the underpinnings of other ANE sacrificial systems (see OBJECTIONS).
• Worship: With the establishment of the Tabernacle, God has fulfilled His desire to be present with His people and enjoy fellowship with them. The only acceptable response to this is an appropriate worship to acknowledge who He is, what He has done, and express their love, honor, thanks, and praise.

LITERARY FEATURES

Leviticus is most obviously a handbook of laws and regulations in the form of an oracular directive from a divine Lawgiver.  The phrase “and the LORD spoke to Moses” appears more than 30 times in the book, underscoring the fact that Leviticus is meant to be received as the very words of God.  In fact, a student at a European Bible college once enthused to me that his appreciation of Leviticus stemmed from the fact that of all the books of the Bible, it has the “highest percentage of God talking.  The whole books is almost entirely God talking.”  Granting the fact that we hold all Scripture to be the words of God, I trust you see his point.

From a somewhat different literary perspective, Leviticus has affinities with utopian literature. Literary utopias both describe how people live in an ideal society and also offer an explanation of the institutions and practices that produce the society described.

INTERPRETIVE CHALLENGES

The interpretive challenges involving Leviticus can be generalized into two groups: internal challenges and external challenges.

• Internal challenges typically revolve around questions of how to relate and reconcile the “rituals” of chapters 1-16 with the “ethics” of chapters 17-26.  While there certainly isn’t a 1:1 correspondence between the two sections, it would be unwise to assume that they are two unrelated bodies of material. Both are equally concerned with Israel’s holiness to the LORD.
• External challenges typically revolve around the sociological/historical context of the content.  This is difficult today both because we are far removed from the culture of the ANE, and because Moses didn’t explicate it in great detail, but rather assumed  a certain context of historical understanding. The spiritual principles of the rituals are timeless, being embedded in the nature of God.  The rituals themselves are no longer valid since the church is now under the authority of the New Covenant, not the Old (Heb 7-10).

OBJECTIONS

Objections to Leviticus typically fall into two groups: the sociological group and the moral group.

The various sociological objections have been briefly discussed in the previous section, and for the sake of brevity, will not be dealt with again beyond that.

The moral objections however will be discussed (albeit briefly as well).  These objections generally center on the alleged barbarity of a system of sacrificial atonement, and/or the alleged injustice of a system of sacrificial atonement (incidentally, keep these in mind when we get to the Gospels…they’ll be back).

• Objections to the barbarity of the system could be treated simply as sociological, but to only do so would overlook the distinctiveness of the Israelite system.  The Israelites were hardly unique among their ANE neighbors in sacrificing animals to deity, but the differences were profound.  Other ANE tribes sacrificed animals because they anthropomorphised their pantheon; they assumed their gods had the same desires and appetites as their worshipers.  In this way, sacrifices were essentially nothing more than quid pro quo…a divine form of graft if you will.  In contrast to their neighbors, Israel didn’t offer sacrifices to curry temporary favor, rather they offered sacrifices to atone for sin. That’s the difference between a man-centered system and a God-centered system: the former is bribery and the later is worship.
• Objections to the injustice of the system typically revolve around the acceptability of vicarious redemption.  In other words, is it “fair” for someone or something to pay the price for your wrongdoing?  Again, we’ll deal with this in greater detail when we get to the Gospels, but for now let’s simply point out that if ad arguendo there is a supreme, sovereign, divine Being…then His rules by definition are correct.

NOTABLE QUOTABLES

• Leviticus 11:44
• Leviticus 17:11

DID YOU KNOW?

• Unlike other religions with viewed sacrifices as literally “food for the gods” (Eze 16:20; Psa 50:9-13), Leviticus portrays the Jewish sacrificial system as being metaphorically “food for God” (Lev 21:6, 8, 17, 21; 22:25).
• We often use the phrase “eye for an eye, tooth for a tooth” when describing vengeance, but the Biblical basis for it is justice.  Regardless of who had been wronged, the punishment was not to exceed the crime (Lev 24:20).
• The blood sacrifices of Leviticus are specifically contrasted with the death of Christ on the cross in Hebrews 7:27.

by Stephen Rodgers

EXODUS IN 10 WORDS OR LESS

“God delivers His people, the Israelites, from slavery in Egypt.”

TITLE

The English title “Exodus” comes from the Greek word (exodos) meaning “going out,” whereas the Hebrew title is derived from the books’s very first word (Šemot), translated “names.”  (Ex 1:1)  The Greek title gives us a glimpse of the major event/theme of the book, whereas the Hebrew title implies that this book was to be accepted as the obvious sequel to Genesis.

As previously mentioned, it is sometimes referred to as the “Second Book of Moses.”

AUTHOR & AUDIENCE

Both Jewish and Christian traditions attribute the five books of the Pentateuch primarily to Moses.  Unlike Genesis which attests to Mosaic authorship indirectly, Exodus lays direct claims (Ex 17:14; 24:4; 34:4,27-29).

Furthermore, both the OT (Num 33:2; Jos 8:31; 1Ki 2:3; 2Ki 14:6; Ezr 6:18; Neh 13:1; Dan 9:11,13; Mal 4:4) and the NT (Matt 8:4;Mk 12:26; Lk 16:29; 24:27, 44; Jn 5:46; 7:22; Ac 15:1; Ro 10:19; 1Co 9:9; 2Co 3:15) credit Moses as the author of the Pentateuch.

For more information, see the “Author and Composition” section of the Pentateuch article.

The original audience were the post-Exodus Israelites and their succeeding generations, who likely read Exodus in order to understand the great saga surrounding their national origin (Ex 12:25-27).

DATE

Depending on whether one subscribes to an early (ca. 1,446 BC) or late (ca. 1,260 BC) date of the Exodus would determine the time during which Exodus was written (after the Exodus but prior to Moses’ death). (It should be noted that while good arguments have been put forth in favor of both dates, the majority of scholars surveyed for this series tended to favor an early date).

BACKGROUND & SETTING

Assuming an early date for the Exodus, Moses would have likely grown up in the courts of Pharaohs Thutmose I and II and Queen Hatshepsut during his first 40 years (Acts 7:22-23).  He would have been in exile during the reign of Thutmose III (Acts 7:30) and returned to Egypt early in the reign of Amenhotep II.  Given such experiences, Moses was uniquely suited to represent his people before the Egyptian monarchy as well as guide them through the wilderness of the Sinai peninsula.

HISTORICAL & THEOLOGICAL THEMES

In broad terms, Exodus deals with four particular themes: 1) Moses, 2) Redemption, 3) Covenant, and 4) Tabernacle.  More specifically, one could say that the book deals with the story of how God raised up his servant Moses (1) to liberate his people from Egyptian bondage (2) and bring them into a covenant with Him (3) and to erect within Israel God’s royal tent (4).  Hopefully that reminds you of another story/theme of how God raised up His greatest Servant and Mediator to liberate His people from bondage to sin and bring them into a covenant with Him and to ultimately re-establish His presence among them.

In this and many other ways (preserved at birth, a sojourn in Egypt resulting in a “coming out,” etc.), Christ is seen as the true and greater Moses, and the Exodus is seen as the precursor for an even greater redemption story. In some ways, the passing through the Red Sea and the provision in the wilderness foreshadow both baptism and communion as well. For more on types, you might want to revisit the OT article.

LITERARY FEATURES

Exodus should be understood overall as falling within the genre of historical narrative. However, it specifically employs the genre of adventure story. It features a cruel villain (Pharaoh), an unlikely hero (Moses), overwhelming disasters (the plagues), a spectacular deliverance (the Red Sea), a mountaintop experience (where Moses received the 10 Commandments), and a grand finale (God Himself descending to fill the tabernacle). Along the way there are twists and turns, setbacks and delays, magic and sorcery, feasts and festivals, music and dancing, and many close encounters with God.

INTERPRETIVE CHALLENGES

As mentioned briefly above, the date of the Exodus has been the topic of some debate, although most scholars tend to favor the earlier date rather than the later one.  What has also been the topic of significant debate is the route of the Exodus.  Three possibilities tend to come up more often then the rest: a northern route called the “way of the land of the Philistines” (Ex 13:17, which the Bible specifically denies), a middle route across Sinai to Beersheba, and a southern route along the west coast of Sinai.  Most conservative scholars tend to favor the southern route.

Furthermore, the typological significance of the tabernacle has been the subject of much discussion and debate.  While some authors and scholars have gone to great lengths to link furniture and building materials to Christ.  It is likely that while the tabernacle has some typological significance, much of the detail regarding structure and ornamentation was intended to describe function and beauty rather than hidden meaning and symbolism.

OBJECTIONS

Exodus has attracted two broad categories of objections: objections to possibility and objections to content.

• Until the last century or so, some skeptics rejected Mosaic authorship (and therefore the claims of Exodus) because they believed that Semitic writing systems had not been devised  at the time he was alive.  Not only has archaeological evidence dispelled that objection, but certain internal linguistic evidence (specifically the third-person singular feminine pronoun and a number of Egyptian loanwords) indicates both early composition and Egyptian influence.
• Objections to content tend to revolve around the absence of evidence in ancient Egyptian records supporting the events described in the book: the plagues, the Exodus, and the defeat of the army at the Red Sea.  However, it should be pointed out that absence of evidence is not evidence of absence, and given the fact that ancient Egyptian historiography did not permit the recording of their pharaoh’s embarrassments and defeats, such gaps are to be expected.

NOTABLE QUOTABLES

• Exodus 3:14
• Exodus 8:1
• Exodus 12:13
• Exodus 20:3 (The 1st Commandment)
• Exodus 20:4 (The 2nd Commandment)
• Exodus 20:7 (The 3rd Commandment)
• Exodus 20:8 (The 4th Commandment)
• Exodus 20:12 (The 5th Commandment)
• Exodus 20:13 (The 6th Commandment)
• Exodus 20:14 (The 7th Commandment)
• Exodus 20:15 (The 8th Commandment)
• Exodus 20:16 (The 9th Commandment)
• Exodus 20:17 (The 10th Commandment)

DID YOU KNOW?

Forgive me as I spend a little time rehashing something that I’ve been thinking about a lot lately.

It has been suggested (and personally I believe) that the 10 plagues of Egypt were specifically designed by God to illustrate His supremacy over representative members of the Egyptian pantheon of gods.  Recall with me for a moment that the Bible makes it clear that whenever you encounter a material idol, said idol is backed by either nothing or something.  Sometimes a log is just a log, and an Old Testament prophet made it clear that when confronted with such vacuous worship, holy ridicule is a wholly appropriate response (Isa 44:16-17).  But while all non-existent gods are false, not all false gods are non-existent.  Sometimes a log is not just a log, and a New Testament prophet made it clear that while they may have supernatural realities behind them (1 Cor 10:20), said supernatural realities do not occupy the top of the supernatural food chain (1 Cor 8:4-6).

Remember that the spiritual realities behind the wise men, sorcerers, and magicians of Egypt were not non-existent.  After all, did not their staffs become serpents (Ex 7:11-12)?  Did they not also turn water to blood (Ex 7:22)? Obviously something was enabling their abilities, and while the Bible doesn’t reveal what went on behind the scenes, I wouldn’t be surprised to discover that something made a point of being somewhere else when the God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob came to town.

I know this is long, but consider the 10 plagues and what they represented:

1. Water to Blood – Triumph over Hapi
2. Frogs – Triumph over Heqt/Heket
3. Lice – Triumph over Kheper/Khepri or Geb
4. Flies – Triumph over Kheper/Khepri
5. Livestock – Triumph over Apis or Hathor
6. Boils – Triumph over Imhotep, Thoth, or Isis
7. Hail – Triumph over Nut
8. Locusts – Triumph over Seth
9. Darkness – Triumph over Ra
10. Death – Triumph over Pharaoh

Furthermore, God Himself was the one who declared that the plagues were open season on the Egyptian gods (Ex 12:12). On other occasions, His prophets reiterated the point (Ex 15:11; 18:11; Numbers 33:4; Jos 24:14; 2 Sam 7:23; Psa 135:8-9).

Egypt was a land of many gods, and the Pharaoh was seen as a god himself.  Given those delusions, one can almost understand the ignorance and arrogance behind his question of “Who is the LORD?” (Ex 5:2)  Given what happened next, God took his question quite seriously, and in the process showed that He’s not particular fond of the various pretenders to His throne.

• Apologetics Study Bible, “Exodus Introduction”
• Archaeological Study Bible

• ESV Study Bible, “Introduction to Exodus”
• MacArthur Study Bible, “Exodus”
• NET Bible, Exodus
• NIV Study Bible, “Exodus”
• Reformation Study Bible, “The Second Book of Moses Called Exodus”
• Know Your Bible
• Driscoll, A Book You’ll Actually Read On the Old Testament
• Knight, The Layman’s Bible Handbook

by Stephen Rodgers

GENESIS IN 10 WORDS OR LESS

“God creates the world and chooses a special people.”

TITLE

The English title “Genesis” comes from the Greek word (geneseos) meaning “origins,” whereas the Hebrew title is derived from the Bible’s very first word (bereshith), translated “in the beginning.” Either way, Genesis can rightly be thought of as the “book of beginnings.”

As previously mentioned, it is sometimes referred to as the “First Book of Moses.”

AUTHOR & AUDIENCE

The author of Genesis is not explicitly stated, but both Jewish and Christian traditions attribute the five books of the Pentateuch primarily to Moses, while acknowledging that minor revisions were posthumously added.

Furthermore, both the OT (Ex 17:14; Num 33:2; Jos 8:31; 1Ki 2:3; 2Ki 14:6; Ezr 6:18; Neh 13:1; Dan 9:11,13; Mal 4:4) and the NT (Matt 8:4; Mk 12:26; Lk 16:29; 24:27, 44; Jn 5:46; 7:22; Ac 15:1; Ro 10:19; 1Co 9:9; 2Co 3:15) credit Moses as the author.

For more information, see the “Author and Composition” section of the Pentateuch article.

The original audience were the post-Exodus Israelites.  Considering that many of their traditions were likely lost or corrupted during their enslavement in Egypt, Genesis  functions as a text that “sets the record straight.”

DATE

Depending on whether one subscribes to an early (ca. 1,446 BC) or late (ca. 1,260 BC) date of the Exodus would determine the time during which Genesis was written (after the Exodus but prior to Moses’ death).  (It should be noted that while good arguments have been put forth in favor of both dates, the majority of scholars surveyed for this series tended to favor an early date). In regards to the events of Genesis, Genesis 12  (Abraham) to Exodus 2 (the birth of Moses) covers 640-660 years.  In regards to the events of Genesis 1-11, there is not universal agreement among Christian scholars regarding the length of time it depicts, however it is generally understood to span a minimum of 2,000 years.

BACKGROUND & SETTING

Genesis begins in eternity past (Gen 1:1), continuing with the events of Creation.

Genesis has three distinct, sequential, geographical settings, which (assuming an early date of the Exodus) can be dated accordingly:

1. Mesopotamia (Gen 1-11: Creation to ca. 2,090 BC)
2. the Promised Land (Gen 12-36: ca. 2,090-1,897 BC)
3. Egypt (Gen 37-50: ca. 1,897-1,804 BC)

HISTORICAL & THEOLOGICAL THEMES

Somewhat ironically, while the literary feature of the “hero story” is prominently displayed in Genesis (see below), the central character is clearly and unapologetically God. The author makes no attempt to prove the existence of God, but simply assumes Him from the outset and proceeds to contrast Him with the alleged gods of the ANE.

• Theologically, Genesis presents the theological foundations for a veritable slew of doctrines and themes: God the Father, God the Son, God the Holy Spirit, man, sin, redemption, covenant, promise, Satan and angels, firstborn, inheritance, kingdom, revelation, Israel, judgment, and blessing.
• Genesis 1-11 (primeval history) deals primarily with the origin of the universe and the origins of various human experiences: marriage, family, the Fall, sin, redemption, judgment, and nations. It is often summarized as dealing with four great EVENTS: Creation, Fall, Flood, and Scattering.
• Genesis 12-50 (patriarchal history) deals primarily with the origin of the nation of Israel, tracing their existance back to both “Eber” (hence “Hebrews”; Gen 10:24-25) and even more remotely to Shem (hence “Semites”; Gen 10:21). It is often summarized as dealing with four great CHARACTERS: Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, and Joseph.

LITERARY FEATURES

Genesis should be understood overall as falling within the genre of historical narrative.  However, it specifically employs a series of hero stories–episodic tales focused on a central character with whom the reader is to sympathize–with interspersed genealogies. It should be noted that while the hero story employs a central character, their actions are not consistently heroic; they are simply the human center of attention in the story.  In this way they are contrasted with God Himself, who is the only character to behave consistently throughout the narrative.

INTERPRETIVE CHALLENGES

Generally speaking, the interpretive challenges of Genesis fall into three categories:

1. Contextual issues tend to center on specific ANE customs.  Since Genesis records events of a time and place found nowhere else in Scripture, hermeneutical issues must often be resolved primarily by referring to the immediate context, which can be difficult.
2. Historical issues tend to center on whether events took place, or at least whether the author believed that events took place.  It should be noted however, that in and of itself, the label “history” is agnostic  in regards to whether an account is complete, unbiased, free from divine activity, in strict chronological order, or includes or excludes figurative elements.
3. Scientific issues tend to center on how events took place. These often result in disagreements regarding the implications and precise nature of certain events, notably various theories regarding the “days” of Creation (calendar day, day-age, analogical day, literary framework, gap theory, etc.), the precise taxonomy of “kinds,” the exact extent of the Flood (local vs. global), and the existence (or lack thereof) of “gaps” in the genealogies, just to name a few. It should again be noted however, that while Genesis never purports to be a specifically “scientific” account (at least as we understand the term in our modern context), it nonetheless is unique among ANE accounts in providing a worldview in which science is both intelligible and possible.

OBJECTIONS

Objections to the composition of the Pentateuch (and their subsequent dismissal) were noted in the “Author and Composition” section of the Pentateuch article.  Additionally, it should be noted that historical (Abraham’s marriage to his half-sister, tolerant attitudes towards Gentiles, unrestricted travels of the patriarchs, etc.), linguistic (the prevalent use of the El compounds for the name of G0d, common names from both the Ebla and Mari texts such as “Ebrium/Eber,” “Abraham,” “Jacob,” and “Amorite”), and literary (Genesis 1-11 somewhat parallels the Mesopotamian Enuma Elish, the Babylonian epic Atrahasis, and the eleventh tablet of the Gilgamesh Epic) strongly argue in favor of second millennium BC composition rather than first millennium BC composition.

Objections to the content of Genesis 1-11 generally center on the fact that it bears some similarities to other ANE creation and flood myths.  While pointing out such factual similarities is perfectly legitimate, it should be noted that they fail to address explanations that the myths have a common source, issues of precedence (which stories predate others), and dissimilarities (the centrality of the Biblical flood vs. the incidental nature of the flood story in Gilgamesh, the uniqueness of Biblical monotheism in an ANE context, etc.).

In any event, the historical framework (Gen 2:4; 5:1) and presence of genealogies (Gen 4-5; 10-11) indicate that the author presented a historical account, and not merely a literary myth.

NOTABLE QUOTABLES

• Genesis 1:1
• Genesis 1:3
• Genesis 4:9
• Genesis 6:8
• Genesis 15:6
• Genesis 50:20

DID YOU KNOW?

• Prior to the advent of various Big Bang cosmologies, scientists often assumed that the universe was eternal.  The position that the universe had a beginning was considered distinctly Judeo-Christian.
• Genesis contains the earliest reference to the Trinity (Gen 1:26)
• Genesis contains the earliest reference to Jesus Christ (Gen 3:15)
• The “bride price” paid by a husband’s family was an ancient combination of both life insurance and pre-nup for the wife (Gen 31:14-16)
• Genesis comprises about 25% of the Pentateuch and spans 2,500 years or more.  Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy comprise the remaining 75% of the Pentateuch and span approximately 120 years (the life of Moses).
• Genesis covers a greater period of time than the remaining 65 books of the Bible combined (excluding the future described in Revelation).

• Apologetics Study Bible, “Genesis Introduction”
• Archaeological Study Bible, “Introduction to Genesis”
• ESV Study Bible, “Introduction to Genesis”
• MacArthur Study Bible, “Genesis”
• NET Bible, Genesis
• NIV Study Bible, “Genesis”
• Reformation Study Bible, “The First Book of Moses Called Genesis”
• Know Your Bible
• Driscoll, A Book You’ll Actually Read On the Old Testament
• Knight, The Layman’s Bible Handbook

by Stephen Rodgers

Comparative Outline of the Pentateuch

Having briefly dealt with the relevant introductory material, we now turn our attention to the first section of the Bible: the Pentateuch.  “Pentateuch” actually means “five volumes/scrolls” or “book in five parts” and refers to the books of Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy.  The Hebrew word for it is “Torah,” although you may occasionally hear it referred to as the “books of Moses” or “the five books of Moses.”  I had a rather alarming moment on a missions trip where someone referred to Exodus as “2nd Moses,” but that could have just been an artifact of translation.

Author & Composition

As is alluded to in the above section, traditional authorship of the Pentateuch has always held that it was written by Moses.  This was relatively undisputed until the 18th century, when some scholars began to challenge the assumption of Mosaic authorship.  While their arguments varied, the gist of it was that several authors (the “Yahwist,” the “Elohist,” the “Deuteronomist,” and the “Priestly writer”) were responsible for writing a number of documents (“J,” “E,” “D,” and “P”) which were edited and spliced together at various times up until approximately 500 BC.

In the late 20th century, this type of critical theory came under massive attack, not just by conservative religious scholars but also by secular textual critics.  While the attacks varied, the gist of it was that such theories are too complicated, self-contradictory, and ultimately unprovable.  Compositional theories have largely been abandoned in favor of disagreements as to when it actually was written, and most scholars currently treat the Pentateuch as a unified document.

However, there are really three areas that we should briefly touch on before moving on:

1. Biblical support for Mosaic authorship
2. Potential issues with Mosaic authorship
3. Compositional issues with the Pentateuch

The Pentateuch itself attests to the fact that the it was written by Moses based on divine revelation (Ex 24:3-7; Lev 1:1; Deut 31:9; 31:24-26).  The Deuteronomy reference is particularly significant as it indicates that the five volumes were compiled as a single book, immediately recognized as Scripture, and often referred to later as a singular, unified book (2 Chron 25:4; 35:12; Ezra 6:18; Neh 13:1; Mark 12:26).  And while we’re on the subject of Biblical support for Mosaic authorship, Jesus Himself stated that Moses was the author (John 5:46; 7:19) and attributed sections of the Pentateuch to Mosaic authorship, including Exodus (Mark 7:10; Ex 20:12; Mark 12:26; Ex 3:6; Luke 20:37; Ex 3:6), Leviticus (Matt 8:4; Lev 13-14; Mark 1:44; Lev 14:3; Luke 5:14; Leviticus 13:8;14:4), and Deuteronomy (Matt 19:8; Deut 24:1-4; Mark 7:10; Deut 5:16; Mark 10:4; Deut 24:1).

There are however, a few places that seem to pose a problem to Mosaic authorship, simply because in places there are sections of text that seem out of place either linguistically (Gen 36:31) or historically (Deut 34:1-12).  While the account of his death has been held by some to be a prophetic account by Moses himself, it is also plausible that it was recorded by someone else (Jewish tradition cites Joshua), and Moses himself  claimed that prophets would succeed him in mediating God’s word (Deut 18:15-20).  Given these possibilities, such “issues” pose no real challenge to Mosaic authorship overall.

Last but not least, it should be mentioned that compositional issues can be at least partially explained by recognizing that Moses himself sometimes wrote from other literary sources, some of which are explicitly identified (Gen 5:1; Num 21:14).  Also, in Ancient Near Eastern (ANE) culture, “authorship” could refer both to someone who actually wrote a particular work, as well as to the person who lent their authority in supporting it. Many Christian scholars would claim that both cases apply to Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch.

Genre & Context

The Pentateuch includes three different literary genres: narrative, poetry, and law. The laws (numbering 611 or 613, depending on how you count them…the Talmud uses the latter number) account for the majority of the Pentateuch (one statistic claims 68.5%).  The fact that the laws feature so prominently is a fact; exactly what their role is in the life of Christians today has been a theological source of debate for centuries. I’ll touch on that briefly later.

However, it is worth remembering that given the strong case for Mosaic authorship, the context of the Pentateuch is the life of Moses. Genesis provides the necessary background and history for a people who would have been dwelling in a foreign culture for quite some time and needed a reminder. Exodus continues the story and includes the fulfillment of at least one key promise (Gen 50:25; Ex 13:19). Leviticus details the rituals of the tabernacle (which has its construction manual in Exodus) as well as the service for ordaining priests (also originally outlined in Exodus).  Numbers records the journey of Israel from the wilderness of Sinai to Canaan. And Deuteronomy summarizes the previous teachings of Exodus, Leviticus, and Deuteronomy for a new generation of Israelites who weren’t there to hear it the first time around.

I can’t help but take the opportunity to point out that the factual basis for certain “controversial” portions of the Pentateuch were confirmed by Jesus Himself including Adam and Eve (Matt 19:4-5; Mark 10:6-8), Cain and Abel (Matt 23:35; Luke 11:51), Noah and the flood (Matt 24:37-39; Luke 17:26-27), Abraham (John 8:56), Sodom and Gomorrah (Matt 10:15; 11:23-24; Luke 10:12; 17:29), Lot (Luke 17:28-32), Isaac and Jacob (Matt 8:11; Luke 13:28), manna (John 6:31, 49, 58), and miraculous healing (John 3:14).

Theme

I would argue that the central theme of the Pentateuch actually can be summarized in four sub-themes.  And in true MacArthurian style I’m going to alliterate them using the letter “P” (after all, this is for the Pentateuch):

1. A Promise: In Genesis 12:1-3 God appears to Abraham and made a three-fold promise to give him a land, descendants, and a blessing. This later (Gen 15:7) becomes what we know as the Abrahamic covenant.  The remainder of Genesis deals with the fulfillment of all three promises (which are ultimately fulfilled in Christ…see Gal 3:8,14), but focuses in particular on the “seed” or descendants, which brings us to…
2. A People: Genesis is the story of the foundation of Israel. Exodus is the story of God rescuing them from Egypt, and the initial giving of the law.  Leviticus expounds on the giving of the law.  Numbers does as well, and highlights both God’s sovereign care and judgment for His people.  This culminates in Deuteronomy with a new generation of Israelites receiving their history and law from Moses.  As you can see, Israel and the law are intertwined, which brings us to the importance of…
3. The Precepts: The importance of the law really cannot be overstated.  As the first inspired body of Scripture, Israel was to meditate upon it (Jos 1:8), teach it to their children (Deut 6:4-8), and read it publicly (Neh 8:1). Prior to his death, Moses gave explicit instructions as to how the reading of the law would change the hearts of the people of Israel and their relationship with God (Deut 31:12).  This would serve as the right foundation for the OT believer’s relationship with God until the coming of Jesus Christ, which leads us to…
4. The Prefigured Christ: The NT is clear that the law exists to show us our sin (Gal 3:19-25), that sin is the breaking of the law (Rom 3:19-23), and that Jesus alone perfectly fulfilled the law (Matt 5:17-18). Jesus took our sin upon Himself so that we could be credited with His righteousness and perfect obedience to the law (2 Cor 5:21). What you may not realize though is that Jesus not only fulfilled the law, but that He is foreshadowed throughout the entire Pentateuch as well.  Gordon Wenham said it better than I ever could, so I’ll let him have the last words…

From NT times, Christians have seen the promises in the Pentateuch as finding their ultimate fulfillment in Christ. Jesus is the offspring of the woman who bruises the serpent’s head (Gen 3:15). He is the one through whom “all the families of the earth shall be blessed” (Gen 12:3). He is the star and scepter who shall rise out of Israel (Num 24:17). More than this, many heroes of the OT have been seen as types of Christ. Jesus is the second Adam. He is the true Israel (Jacob), whose life sums up the experience of the nation.

But preeminently Jesus is seen as the new and greater Moses. As Moses declared God’s law for Israel, so Jesus declares and embodies God’s word to the nations. As Moses suffered and died outside the land so that his people could enter it, so the Son of God died on earth so that his people might enter heaven. It was observed that the filling of the tabernacle with the glory of God was the climax of the Pentateuch (Ex 40:34–38). So too “the Word became flesh and dwelt among us, and we have seen his glory” (John 1:14). The goal of the entire Bible is that humans everywhere should glorify the God whose glory has confronted them. Lost sight of in Eden, this goal reappears through Moses, on its way to final fulfillment through Christ.

• ESV Study Bible, “Introduction to the Pentateuch”
• MacArthur Study Bible, “Introduction to the Pentateuch”
• Reformation Study Bible, “Introduction to the Pentateuch”
• Driscoll, A Book You’ll Actually Read On the Old Testament

by Stephen Rodgers

Last week’s post went a little bit long and touched on a few issues that were a bit technical.  This week’s post will probably be a bit shorter, and nowhere near as technical.  In fact, I spent part of the day contemplating if I wanted to just make a post with the title What is the OT About? and then write Jesus in the post.

Nothing more.  Just Jesus.

I thought it would make a point…and it would.  But even though that would have definitively gotten the point across, let’s elaborate on it just a bit.

First though, let me point out a couple of articles that deal with other aspects of the OT:  I’ve previously mentioned Vern Polythress’ “Overview of the Bible: A Survey of the History of Salvation” but I’d also like to recommend C. John Collins’ “The Theology of the Old Testament” which takes a broader view.  They’re only a couple pages each, and there’s some great material in there (and if you own an ESV Study Bible, you have those articles already).  But for the purposes of this article, I want to make the point that the central character of the Old Testament is indeed Jesus…even if He never quite directly steps into the spotlight.

It was Mark Dever who once summed up the message of the OT and NT as “Promises Made” and “Promises Kept,” respectively (with Jesus as the primary object of both).  But as much as I respect Pastor Mark, I wouldn’t be comfortable making a claim and then falling back on “well, Mark Dever said so” as my primary justification.  On the other hand, “Jesus said so” carries a little more weight.

You see, it was Jesus who made it absolutely clear that the OT was all about Him! He said it more than once, and in a number of different contexts as well.  He said it before His resurrection (John 5:39-40) and He said it after His resurrection (Luke 24:27). He said it to His disciples (Luke 24:44-45) and He said it to large crowds of strangers (Matt. 5:17-18).  He said it at the beginning of His ministry (Luke 4:20-21) and He said it at the end of His ministry (Luke 22:37; Matt 26:56).

I don’t know about you, but I’ve got this crazy notion that being a “Christian” involves paying attention to Christ.

“Alright Stephen,” you might be saying.  “I believe you that the OT is about Jesus.  I even accept that Jesus said the OT was about Himself.  But can you give me examples of how it’s about Him?”

Yes.  Yes I can.

Prophetic Promises

The OT contains hundreds of prophecies concerning the coming Messiah.  And despite what some skeptics say, there are strong reasons to believe in their validity.  Here are just a few of them:

• 1,000 BC: David prophesied that lots would be cast for Jesus’ clothes (Ps 22:18; John 19:23-24), that Jesus would be crucified (500 years before the first recorded instance of crucifixion) (Ps 22:16; Luke 23:33), and that Jesus would resurrect from Death (Ps 16:10)
• 700 BC: Isaiah prophesied that Jesus would be born of a virgin who would conceive by a miracle (Isa 7:14; Matt 1:18-23), that Jesus would die and be buried in a rich man’s tomb (Isa 53:8-9; Matt 27:57-60; Luke 23:46), and that Jesus would resurrect from death (Isa 53:10-12; Acts 2:25-32)
• 700 BC: Micah prophesied that Jesus would be born in Bethlehem (Mic 5:2; Luke 2:1-7)
• 700 BC: Hosea prophesied that Jesus’ family would flee to Egypt (Hos 11:1; Matt 2:13-15)
• 500 BC: Zechariah prophesied that Jesus would be betrayed for 30 pieces of silver (Zech 11:12-13; Matt 26:14-15)
• 400 BC: Malachi prophesied that Jesus would enter the temple (which was destroyed in 70 AD) (Mal 3:1; Luke 2:25-27)

Christophonies

A “Christophony” is the theological term for an appearance of the pre-incarnate Christ.  You can think of these almost as “cameos” of Jesus, before we fully learn about who He is.  These include:

• Walking with Abraham (Gen 18; John 8:56)
• Wrestling with Jacob (Gen 32:30)
• Appearing to Moses (Ex 3:2-6; John 8:58)
• Joining Daniel in the fiery furnace (Dan 3:24-25)
• Calling Isaiah into ministry (Isa 6:1-5; John 12:41)

Types

The aforementioned Vern Polythress defines a “type” as a special example, symbol, or picture that God designed beforehand, and that he placed in history at an earlier point in time in order to point forward to a later, larger fulfillment.  Sometimes a “type” is also called a “prefigure” or a “shadow.” These can be shown through individuals and institutions, services, and events.

• Some individuals and institutions would be how Adam points to Christ as the second Adam, how the priesthood points to Christ as the High Priest, how David and the other kings point to Christ as the King of Kings, how Moses and the prophets point to Christ as the ultimate Prophet, animal sacrifices which point to Christ as the Lamb of God, the temple which points to Christ as God dwelling among us bodily in Jesus, shepherds who point to Christ as the Great Shepherd and many more.
• Some services would be how Christ was the better Adam, the better Abel, the better Abraham, the better Jacob, the better Joseph, the better Moses, the better Job, the better David, the better Jonah, the better Boaz, the better Nehemiah, the better Hosea, and many more.  For more explanation of that, you might want to start with a short youtube video of an excerpt from a sermon by Tim Keller.
• Some events would be the exodus as a pattern for salvation, and Yom Kippur as a pattern for the crucifixion.

Titles

Last but not least, Jesus is identified by a number of OT titles that are used to identify and describe God.  The most prevalent is the title “son of man” from Daniel 7:13-14, which Jesus uses more than 80 times in the four gospels.  Other titles include:

• Suffering Servant (Isa 42: 1-4; 49:1-7; 52:13-53:12; Phil 2:1-11)
• First and Last (Isa 41:4; 44:6; 48:12; Rev 1:17; 2:8; 22:13)
• Light (Ps 27:1; John 1:9)
• Rock (Ps 18:2; 95:1; 1 Cor 10:4; 1 Pet 2:6-8)
• Husband/Bridegroom (Hos 2:16; Isa 62:5; Eph 5:28-33; Rev 21:2)
• Shepherd (Ps 23:1; Heb 13:20)
• Redeemer (Hos 13:14; Ps 130:7; Titus 2:13; Rev 5:9)
• Savior (Isa 43:3; John 4:42)
• Lord of Glory (Isa 42:8; 1 Cor 2:8)

At the beginning of the article I said it would be shorter and less technical than last week.  Well…now it’s longer, and I’ve quoted Polythress, so I probably failed on both counts.  But despite that, I hope you’re beginning to see that the OT is really all about Jesus. Until you understand that, you’re missing the entire point.

Next week we’ll dig deeper into a specific section of the OT as we explore the Pentateuch.  And after that…we’ll dive into an actual book of the Bible: Genesis.

Other Works Referenced

• ESV Study Bible
• Dever, The Message of the Old Testament
• Dever, The Message of the New Testament
• Driscoll, A Book You’ll Actually Read On The Old Testament

by Stephen Rodgers

As I mentioned in last week’s article, before we delve too deeply into the various parts of the OT, we should probably briefly touch on the issue of how those various parts came to be thought of as the OT.  And that brings us to what is typically known as “canonology,” or the study of the “canon” (the collection and list of inspired books contained in the Bible).

Now, I’m going to summarize and add to this a little bit, but honestly, I probably can’t do a better job to start with than directing you to read the freely-available essay from the ESV Study Bible “The Canon of Scripture.”  For now, you only need to read the OT part.  Although you’re welcome to read the NT section as well, we’re going to get into that in more detail when we get to the NT.

First, let’s start with what the OT is.

What is now referred to as the “Old Testament” of the Bible is actually known to the Jews as the “Tanakh,” which is an acronym (TNK) based on the three distinct parts of the Hebrew scriptures: the “Torah” (Law), the “Nevi’im” (Prophets), and the “Kethuvim” (Writings).  In fact, the Old Testament is identical to the Hebrew scriptures, except that it is numbered and organized differently.  The Old Testament is also sometimes also referred to as the “Torah” or “the Law” (Psalm 1:2; John 10:34).

I mentioned that our OT is identical to the Hebrew scriptures except that it is numbered and organized differently.  Typically there will be either 22 or 24 books; if there’s 22, that doesn’t mean that there’s anything missing, it just means that some of the books were combined with each other.  The 22-book version, the 24-book version, and the 39-book version all have the same content.

If you’re curious, the common 24-book version (including the Hebrew names for them) is often organized as follows:

The Law (Torah)

·        Genesis (Bereishit)

·        Exodus (Shemot)

·        Leviticus (Vayikra)

·        Numbers (Bemidbar)

·        Deuteronomy (Devarim)

The Prophets (Nevi’im)

·        Former Prophets

o  Joshua (Yehoshua)

o  Judges (Shoftim)

o  (1 & 2) Samuel (Shmu’el)

o  (1 & 2) Kings (Melakhim)

·        Latter Prophets

o  Isaiah (Yeshayaho)

o  Jeremiah (Yirmiyahu)

o  Ezekiel (Yehezqu‘el)

o  The Twelve ( Trei Asar )

§ Hosea (Hoshea)

§ Joel (Yo‘el)

§ Amos

§ Obadiah (Ovadyah)

§ Jonah (Yonah)

§ Micah (Mikhah)

§ Nahum (Nachum)

§ Habakkuk (Habaquq)

§ Zephaniah (Tsefania)

§ Haggai

§ Zechariah (Zekharia)

§ Malachi (Malakhi)

The Writings (Kethuvim)

·        Poetical Books

o  Psalms (Tehillim)

o  Proverbs (Mishlei)

o  Job (’Iyyov)

·        Five Rolls (Megilloth)

o  Song of Songs (Shir ha-Shirim)

o  Ruth

o  Lamentations (Eikhah)

o  Ecclesiastes (Kohelet)

o  Esther

·        Historical Books

o  Daniel

o  Ezra

o  Nehemiah

o  (1 & 2) Chronicles (Divrei ha-Yamim)

In 90 AD, this collection of books was formally affirmed by a collection of Jewish elders at the Council of Jamnia.  (They also rejected the Apocrypha at the same time, but that too, is a lesson for another time).  Keep in mind though that this wasn’t the first time these books were recognized; they had been collected and regarded as Scripture for centuries by that point.

Next, let’s talk about how we know that it hasn’t changed.

Now perhaps you’re saying, “it’s great that the Christian OT and the Jewish Tanakh are the same now, but how do we know that they haven’t been altered? What if the Christians (or the Jews) changed them somehow.”  That’s a fair question; consider the following:

• The oldest complete Hebrew copy we have is the Masoretic text.  It dates back to the 10th century (1,000 years ago).  When we compare that text with our current version, aside from the occasional typo or spelling mistake, they are the same.
• The oldest complete Greek copy we have is the Septuagint.  It dates back to the 3rd century (1,700 years ago).  When we compare that text with the Masoretic text, aside from the occasional typo or spelling mistake, they are the same.
• The oldest collection of fragments we have is the Dead Sea Scrolls.  It dates back to the 2nd century BC (2,500 years ago). When we compare those fragments with the Masoretic text, aside from the occasional typo or spelling mistake, they are the same.  And by this point, we’re looking at versions of the Tanakh that were around 200 years after the OT finished, and around 200 years before there were Christians!

Finally, let’s talk about why we believe it is inspired.

“Alright Stephen,” you might be saying.  “I can see that the Christian OT and the Hebrew scriptures are the same, and I’m convinced that they always were the same.  But why should I believe that they’re from God?”

Well, when it comes to the OT books, there are five traits that we look for.  And we derive those traits from the teaching of the Bible itself:

1. They were written by a prophet of God (Deut 18:18-22; 1 Pet 1:20-21)
2. That prophet’s authority was confirmed by an act of God (Heb 2:3-4)
3. The prophetic writings told the truth about God in harmony with God’s other prophets (Deut 13:1-5; 18:22; Gal 1:8)
4. The prophetic writings were accompanied with the power of God to change people’s lives (Heb 4:12)
5. The prophetic writings were accepted by the people of God as true (Deut 31:24-26; Josh 24:26; 1 Sam 10:25; Dan 9:2; Col 4:16; 1 Thess 2:13; 5:27; 1 Tim 5:18; 2 Pet 3:16)

by Stephen Rodgers

Before we get into a more specific examination of the Bible by breaking it into parts (which we will later do along the lines of books, genres, and testaments), we should probably begin with an explanation of how those particular collections came to be. And before we do that, we should probably begin with an even broader subject: Scripture as a whole.

You may already know this, but the Bible is actually a collection of 66 documents (typically called “books”). It is divided into two sections: the Old Testament (which contains 39 books), and the New Testament (which contains 27 books).  Those books are further divided into chapters, and those chapters are further sub-divided into verses. (It is worth saying at this point that the chapters and verses are not part of the original text; they were added later to make it easier to find things.  While that is very convenient, it also means that sometimes people treat the Bible as if it were nothing more than a collection of quotes, which is an enormous mistake).

The Old Testament (OT) primarily concerns itself with a people (ancient Israel), was written over the course of approximately 1,000 years, and was predominantly written in the language of that people (Hebrew, although two sections are in Aramaic).

The New Testament (NT) primarily concerns itself with a person (Jesus Christ), was written over the course of approximately 50 years, and was predominantly written in the common trade language of that time (Greek, although several quotes were translated from Hebrew by the authors).

Despite these differences, the Bible has remarkable unity, unsurpassed by any other literary work written by such disparate men over approximately 1,500 years. When one considers the differences in language, culture, history, education, background, and profession of the various authors, it is easy to see why the two most-proposed explanations are a conspiracy of brilliant con-men and editors on one hand and the personal interference of a sovereign God on the other.

This unity can be expressed in several different ways. For the sake of time, we’ll only look at three of them briefly.

John MacArthur in the MacArthur Study Bible notes that the Bible has a single unifying theme (the story of God redeeming His chosen people for the praise of His glory) with five recurring motifs. They are:

1. the character of God
2. the judgment for sin and disobedience
3. the blessing for faith and obedience
4. the Lord Savior and Sacrifice for sin
5. the coming kingdom and glory

And for what it’s worth, any of those motifs would be fertile ground for further study…Stephen Charnock’s works on the attributes of God alone runs over 500 pages…Vaughn Roberts has an entire book devoted to the theme of the kingdom (God’s Big Picture), which is nonetheless downright introductory compared to Dr. Alva J. McClain’s seminal work on the subject (The Greatness of the Kingdom). (And if you need something online, there’s always Dane Ortlund’s overview of The Grace of God in the Bible).

On the other hand, in his miniscule but masterful book How We Got Our Bible, W.H. Griffith Thomas notes the Christocentric theme of Scripture, and suggests that the sections of the Bible can be understood progressively:

• Genesis to Deuteronomy – Revelation
• Joshua to Esther – Preparation
• Job to Song of Solomon – Aspiration
• Isaiah to Malachi – Expectation
• Matthew to John – Manifestation
• Acts to Epistles – Realization
• Revelation – Culmination

He also notes that the unity of Scripture can be seen in the symmetry of it structure as well:

• The OT begins with revelation (the Pentateuch), and proceeds to realization (the remainder of the OT). This realization is seen in outward expression (the historical books), inward experience (the poetical books), and onward expectation (prophetical books).
• The NT begins with revelation (the Gospels), and proceeds to realization (the remainder of the NT). This realization is seen in outward expression (History/Acts), inward experience (Doctrine/epistles), and onward expectation (Prophecy/Revelation).

Please note that while the thematic, progressive, and structural unity of the Bible are three different ways to examine it as a whole, they are certainly not the only ways to look at it. We could come up with many other views, or delve into much greater detail on any of the views described above (for example, for a Christocentric examination of the OT, I would recommend Vern Polythress’ “Overview of the Bible: A Survey of the History of Salvation”). I just wanted to take a moment to state the obvious, especially since it’s a point that could easily get lost as we proceed to break the Bible into smaller and smaller units to examine it more closely:

As previously stated, the Bible is a collection of 66 different documents. However, at it’s core it is a singular entity, with a single Author, and a central message.

Don’t forget that.

Next week, we’ll take a brief look into the subject of the OT canon. Between now and then, if anyone wanted to do some further reading on the Word of God, I would suggest that Garrett’s seven articles on “The Doctrine of the Word of God” would be an excellent start.

Other Works Referenced:

• ESV Study Bible
• MacArthur Study Bible
• Sumner, How Did We Get The Bible?
• Thomas, How We Got Our Bible

by Stephen Rodgers

My father has a story he tells from time to time about something that happened when he was a Sunday School teacher.  He was doing “sword drills” for a group of 2nd or 3rd graders (for anyone who doesn’t know the term, those are basically games where kids compete to see who can look up verses the fastest).  The kids were doing pretty well, and just to see what would happen, he asked them to look up “2 Hezekiah 3:15.”

There is no such book as 2 Hezekiah.

The first thing that went wrong was that the kids kept looking for the non-existent book. He kept dropping hints that they should check the table of contents, and a few of them did just that.

The second thing that went wrong was that one child leapt to his feet, called out in an excited voice that he “had it,” and proceeded to read…something…aloud.  The other children were disappointed that he “found” the verse before they did; my father was disappointed for an entirely different reason.

Martin Luther once wrote that “it is a sin and shame not to know our own book or to understand the speech and words of our God.” I’m afraid that the sin and shame that Luther observed in his time has only grown more prevalent in ours.

For the next 70-80 weeks, we’re going to have a new series here on the Beacon.  The working title for it is “BOB”…Books of the Bible.  We’re going to go over the meta-narrative of Scripture, the various genres that comprise the Scriptures, and each book of the Bible in some detail.  In particular we’ll discuss things like authorship, chronological context, historical/theological themes, background and setting, literary features, summaries, and anything else that comes up. I’m hoping we’ll even have time for some tangential issues like the Canonicity of the Bible and the Apocrypha.

These articles won’t be exhaustive; if you really want to dig into one or more books of the Bible you’re going to need to go well beyond what we’ll cover in this series.  But it’s a start.

I hope that you will stay tuned, keep reading, and that this series will give you a renewed love, understanding, and appreciation for God’s word.